Nature versus nurture controversy
experiences (nurture) or genetics (nature) influences development
Nature versus nurture differences
nature
... [Show More] preprogrammed and nurture experiences
Continuity theories
Steady growth process
Discontinuity (stage) vs Continuity
Stage is qualitative
Child development vs. Life Span Perspective
Freud and Piaget = child development
Erikson = life span
Child Development theory
complete once reach adolescence
Life Span theory
continues throughout life span
Universality vs. context-specific development
Universality (Piaget) = same order and same age
Context-specific (Bronfenbrenner) = takes place in various contexts
Context-specific development
Collectivist cultures vs. individualistic cultures changes development
Cognitive development theory
Based on the notion that cognitive abilities are developed as individuals mature physiologically and have opportunity to interact with environment (Piaget)
Equilibration of accommodation and assimilation
Piaget argues that normally we are in this state, when a new stimulus presents we enter state of disequilibrium
Accommodation
Adjusting prior knowledge gained through former experiences and interactions
Assimilation
Fitting together the new information with what has been previously known or understood
Constructivism
Piaget position on learning. Children construct schema, organized patterns of thought or action, Based on the experiences that they have actively exploring the environment
Piaget Constructivism
considered a stage theory
Piaget Constructivism Four Stages
1. Sensorimotor (birth - 2)
2. Preoperational (2-7)
3. Concrete Operations (7-11)
4. Formal Operaitons (11-15)
Preoperational stage
egocentrism, rigidity of thought, semi logical reasoning, limited social cognition
Concrete Operations
Beginning of operational thinking, can perform transformations, understand reversibility, inversion, reciprocity, and conservation, group into categories, make inferences, inductive reasoning
Formal Operations
higher ordered critical thinking, adult thinking, ultimate stage of cognitive development, scientific method, logical, abstract and hypothetical thought, deductive and inductive reasoning
Kohlberg
extended Piaget model to study of moral reasoning
Information processing approach
newer approach to studying cognitive development, uses computer as metaphor for human mind
Learning theory (or behaviorist theory)
Developmental change as the product of learning
Learning
To find as changes in observable behavior
Behavioral psychology important figures
Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura
Learning theory
behavior is controlled by stimuli in the environment
Pavlov Classical Conditioning
Learning takes place when reflexive behavior comes under the control of a novel stimulus in the environment
Reflex
unlearned behavior present at birth, unconscious
Generalization
Observed when a conditioned response solicited by stimuli similar to the original CS
Discrimination
Opposite of generalization. Process of conditioning a response to occur only after specific stimulus is presented
Extinction
Unlearning of a CR
Emotional responses at birth
Love, anger, and fear
Skinner
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning)
Behavior is shaped by rewarding or punishing consequences that follow
Reinforcement
Process of rewarding a behavior
Shaping of behavior
Skinner argued that two processes of reinforcement and punishment control the shaping of behavior
Positive reinforcement
Reward or rewarding condition that is experienced after a behavioral response increasing the probability that the response will be repeated under the same stimulus conditions in the future
Negative reinforcement
Unpleasant condition is removed when the behavioral responses is emitted
Bandura
Social-cognitive theory of learning (social learning theory)
Social-cognitive theory
Changes in behavior are acquired not only through the process of conditioning, but also through observational learning
Modeling
Observing the behavior of a model and then later imitating that behavior
Self-efficacy
Subjective judgment a person makes that he or she will be successful in the attempt to imitate a model
Vicarious reinforcement
affect that seeing a model being reinforced has in observational learning
Psychodynamic theory (psychoanalytic theory)
Freud
Five Stages of psychosexual development
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Freud - first three most important
Erikson's psychosocial stages of development
Stage theory that personality continues to develop over the entire lifespan. Did not stress unconscious motives or desires. However, like Freud, did feel that events that occur early in development can leave a permanent mark on later development.
Freud vs Erikson
Psychosexual vs Psychosocial
Erikson psychosocial theory
Developing individual is faced with social emotional tasks that progressively enabled the individual to function in the social world. The ego either develops a strength or weakness in adapting socially. Eight stages with two polarities.
Eight stages of psychosocial theory
1. Trust vs Mistrust (Childhood)
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Childhood)
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Childhood)
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood)
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood)
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)
Trust vs. Mistrust
Birth - 1 year. Infants needs to be met by responsive, sensitive caretakers. If this occurs, a basic sense of trust and optimism develops. If not, mistrust and fear of the future results.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
1-3 years. Children begin to express self-control by climbing, exploring, touching, and toilet training. Parents can foster a sense of autonomy by encouraging children to try new things. If restrained or punished harshly, shame and doubt can develop.
Initiative vs. Guilt
3-6 years. Children are asked to assume more responsibility. Through play, children learn to plan, undertake, and carry out a task. Parents can encourage initiative by giving children the freedom to play, to use their imagination, etc. Children who are criticized or discouraged from taking the initiative learn to feel guilty.
Industry vs. Inferiority
6-11 years. In elementary school, children learn skills that are valued by society. Success or failure while learning these skills can have lasting effects on a child's feelings of adequacy.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescence. The development of identity involves finding out who we are, what we value, and where we are headed in life. In their search for identity, adolescents experiment with different roles. If we establish an integrated image of ourselves as a unique person, then we establish a sense of identity. If not, role confusion results and can be expressed through anger and resentment.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young Adulthood. At this time we are concerned with establishing intimate, long-term relationships with others. If we have successfully resolved the identity crisis, we can be warm and open with others. If we are unsure of our identity or if we have developed an unhealthy identity, then we may avoid others or keep them at an emotional distance.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adulthood. This stage centers around the concern for the next generation. Successful development shows adults sharing their life-acquired wisdom and caring for the growth of the community. Complacency in this stage leads to stagnation and potentially to depression and loneliness.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Late Adulthood. If a person looking back on his or her life can believe that it has been meaningful and relatively successful, then a sense of integrity develops. If all that is seen are wasted opportunities and meaninglessness, the person will be disgusted. Despair will follow disgust if the person feels it is too late to change.
Sociocultural theory
Argues that there is a bidirectional relationship between the child and the sociocultural environment. The child influences the people and the environments as much as those people and environments influence the child. [Show Less]