The most valuable type of research is - Answer- the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships
Experiments emphasize parsimony, which
... [Show More] means - Answer- interpreting the results in the simplest way.
Parsimonious literally means a tendency to be miserly and not overspend.
Occam's Razor suggests that experimenters - Answer- interpret the results in the simplest manner.
Exams often refer to parsimony as Occam's Razor, the principle of economy, or Lloyd Morgan's 1894 Canon (canon in this sense means "law"
A counselor educator is running an experiment to test a new form of counseling. Unbeknownst to the experimenter one of the clients in the study is secretly seeing a gestalt therapist. This experiment - Answer- is confounded/flawed.
Nondirective is to person-centered as - Answer- parsimony is to Occam's Razor
An experiment is said to be confounded when - Answer- undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.
Your exam could refer to this as a contaminating variable.
In experimental terminology IV stands for _______ and DV stands for _______. - Answer- independent variable; dependent variable.
A professor of counselor education hypothesized that biofeed- back training could reduce anxiety and improve the average score on written board exams. If this professor decides to con- duct a formal experiment the IV will be the _______, and the DV will be the _______. - Answer- biofeedback; board exam score
Okay, time to plug in your memory devices. "I manipulate...or I experiment with, well, the biofeedback training, of course." The "I" statement here gives you your "IV." For your "DV" (remember DV begins with a "D" like "data") your data is provided by the board exam score.
Experimenters should always abide by a code of ethics. The vari- able you manipulate/control in an experiment is the - Answer- IV or independent variable.
"I am the researcher so I manipu- late or experiment with the IV."
In order for the professor of counselor education (see question 708) to conduct an experiment regarding his hypothesis he will need a(n) _______ and a(n) _______. - Answer- control group; experimental group.
The control group does not receive the IV. The experimental group receives the IV.
In order for the professor of counselor education to conduct the experiment suggested in question 708 the experimental group would need to receive - Answer- The biofeedback training (manipulated IV)
An organismic variable is one the re- searcher cannot control yet exists such as height, weight, or gen- der.
Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of - Answer- R. A. Fisher.
A hypothesis is a statement which can be tested regarding the relationship of the IV and the DV.
The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. Thus, if the experiment in question 708 was conducted, the null hypothesis would sug- gest that - Answer- biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.
The null hypothesis is simply that the IV does not affect the DV. Null means "nil" or "nothing." Null is a statement of "no difference."
The hunch is known as the experimental or alternative hypoth- esis. The experimental hypothesis suggests that a difference will be evident between the control group and the experimental group (i.e., the group receiving the IV). Thus, if the experiment in question 708 were conducted, the experimental hypothesis would suggest that - Answer- the biofeedback would raise board scores.
From a purely statistical standpoint, in order to compare a con- trol group (which does not receive the IV or experimental ma- nipulation) to the experimental group the researcher will need - Answer- a test of significance.
Correlation coefficient - Answer- a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
When you see the letter P in relation to a test of significance it means - Answer- Probability
In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually - Answer- .05 or less
.05 and .01 are the two most popular levels of significance.
P = .05 really means that - Answer- there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors.
P = .05 really means that - Answer- differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 out of 100 times.
The study that would best rule out chance factors would have a
significance level of P = - Answer- .001
Here, the .001 level is the most stringent level listed, indicating that there is only one chance in 1,000 that the results are due to chance, versus one in 20 for .05, and one in 100 for .01.
Type I and Type II errors are called _______ and _______ respectively. - Answer- alpha and beta
Type I (alpha error) occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is true
Type II error (beta error) occurs when you accept null when it is false.
A Type I error occurs when - Answer- you reject null when it is true.
A Type II error - Answer- is also called a beta error and means you accept null when it is false
Although lowering the significance level (e.g., .01 to .001) lowers Type I errors, it "raises" the risk of committing a Type II or beta error. Simply think of the Type I/Type II relationship as a seesaw in the sense that when one goes up the other goes down.
A counselor educator decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will - Answer- reduce Type I and Type II errors.
Raising the size of a sample helps to lower the risk of chance/er- ror factors. Simply put: differences revealed via large samples are more likely to be genuine than differences revealed using a small sample size.
If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to.001,
then - Answer- alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase.
A counselor believes that clients who receive assertiveness train- ing will ask more questions in counseling classes. An experimen- tal group receives assertiveness training while a control group does not. In order to test for significant differences between the groups the counselor should utilize - Answer- the student's t test.
When comparing two sample groups the t test, which is a sim- plistic form of the analysis of variance, is utilized. The t test is used to ascertain whether two sample means are significantly different. The researcher sets the level of significance and then runs the experiment. The t test is computed and this yields a t value. The researcher then goes to a t table found in the index of most statistics' texts. If the t value obtained statistically is lower than the t value (sometimes called "critical t") in the table, then you accept the null hypothesis. Your computation must ex- ceed the number cited in the table in order to reject null.
When is analysis of variance used? - Answer- if there are more than two groups
The results of an ANOVA yield an F- statistic. The researcher then consults an F table for a critical value of F. If F obtained (i.e., computed) exceeds the critical F value in the table, then the null hypothesis is rejected
the analysis of covariance or ANCOVA - Answer- tests 2 or more groups while controlling for extraneous variables that are often called "covariates"
the Kruskal-Wallis - Answer- used instead of the ANOVA when data is nonparametric
the Wilcoxon signed rank test - Answer- A nonparametric statistical test used to compare two paired (dependent) samples where the outcome of interest is ordinal or continuous with a skewed distribution.
the Mann-Whitney U-Test - Answer- determines whether 2 uncorrelated means differe significantly when data are nonparmetric
(memory: the 'u' reminds you of 'uncorrelated')
the Spearman correlation or Kendall's tau - Answer- which is used in place of the Pearson r when parametric assumptions cannot be uti- lized;
the Chi-Square nonparametric test - Answer- examines whether obtained frequencies differ significantly from expected frequencies
The researcher in question 727 now attempts a more complex experiment. One group receives no assertiveness training, a sec- ond group receives four assertiveness training sessions, and a third receives six sessions. The statistic of choice would - Answer- be the ANOVA
the simple ANOVA or one-way analysis of variance is used when there is more than one level of a single IV, which in this case is the assertiveness training.
If the researcher in the previous question utilized two IVs then the statistic of choice would be - Answer- the two-way ANOVA or MANOVA.
To complete a t test you would consult a tabled value of t. In order to see if significant differences exist in an ANOVA you would - Answer- consult a table for F values.
Which level of significance would best rule out chance factors?
.05
.01
.2
.001 - Answer- .001
When a researcher uses correlation, then there is no direct ma- nipulation of the IV. A researcher might ask, for example, how IQ correlates with the incidence of panic disorder. Again, noth- ing is manipulated; just measured. In cases such as this a correla- tion coefficient will reveal - Answer- the relationship between IQ and panic disorder.
A positive correlation is not a stronger relationship than a negative one of the same numerical value. A correlation of −.70 is still indicative of a stronger relationship than a positive correlation of .60. The minus sign merely describes the fact that as one variable goes up the other goes down
If data indicate that students who study a lot get very high scores on state counselor licensing exams, then the correlation between study time and LPC exam scores would be - Answer- positive
A positive correlation is evident when both variables change in the same direction. A negative correlation is evident when the variables are inversely associated; one goes up and the other goes down.
Which of the following would most likely yield a perfect correla- tion of 1.00? - Answer- length in inches and length in centimeters.
Correlation is concerned with what stat- isticians call "covariation." When two variables vary together statisticians say the variables "covary positively," and when one increases while the other
A good guess would be that if you would correlate the length of CACREP graduates' baby toes with their NCE scores the result would - Answer- be close to 0.00.
There is an absence of association here because as one variable changes the other variable varies randomly. The variation of one variable is most likely totally unrelated to the variation of the other
Dr. X discovered that the correlation between therapists who hold NCC status and therapists who practice systematic desen- sitization is .90. A student who perused Dr. X's research told his fellow students that Dr. X had discovered that attaining NCC status causes therapists to become behaviorally oriented. The student is incorrect because - Answer- correlation does not imply causal.
Correlation does not mean causal! Correlational research is qua- si-experimental, and hence, it does not yield cause-effect data. A major research study, for example, might discover a very high correlation between the number of college students in a given geographical area and number of writing utensils owned. Yet it would certainly be misleading to conclude that owning a lot of writing utensils causes one to become a college student.
Bivariate vs multivariate - Answer- When correlational data describe the nature of two vari- ables, the term bivariate is utilized. If more than two variables are under scrutiny, then the term multivariate is used to describe the correlational paradigm.
Behaviorists often utilize N=1, which is called intensive experi- mental design. The first step in this approach would be to - Answer- take a baseline measure.
In a new study the clients do not know whether they are receiv- ing an experimental treatment for depression or whether they are simply part of the control group. This is, nevertheless, known to the researcher. Thus, this is a - Answer- single-blind study
A large study at a major university gave an experimental group of clients a new type of therapy that was intended to ameliorate test anxiety. The control group did not receive the new therapy. Neither the clients nor the researchers knew which students re- ceived the new treatment. This was a - Answer- double-blind study
Experimenter effects can flaw an experiment because the experimenter might un- consciously communicate his or her intent or expectations to the subjects.
Typical AB design - Answer- An AB or ABA time-series design is the simplest type of single-subject research and was initially popular- ized by behavior modifiers in the 1960s and 1970s
Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to - Answer- degree of relationship
A correlation coefficient is a descriptive statistic which indicates the degree of "linear relationship" between two variables. Statis- ticians use [Show Less]