osmosis - ANSWER-movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane
osmotic pressure: definition - ANSWER-the force that attracts water across a
... [Show More] semi-permeable membrane
water attractors in osmosis - ANSWER-- sodium
- albumin
passive diffusion - ANSWER-- solutes crossing a semi-permeable membrane down a concentration gradient
- No ATP needed
facilitated diffusion - ANSWER-- solutes moving across a semi-permeable membrane from low concentration to high
- ATP required
anaerobic respiration - ANSWER-Respiration that does not require oxygen
aerobic respiration - ANSWER-Respiration that requires oxygen
where does the Krebs cycle take place? - ANSWER-mitochondria
Krebs cycle: Aerobic respiration important characteristic - ANSWER-- produces a bunch of ATP
- no byproducts
Krebs cycle: Anaerobic respiration important characteristics - ANSWER-- produces 2 ATP
- byproducts: pyruvic acid, lactic acid
- leads to metabolic acidosis
- temporary
Na+K+ pump - ANSWER-uses ATP to keep K+ inside cell and Na+ outside cell to create resting potential (2:3 ratio)
resting potential (Na+K+ pump) - ANSWER-- Imbalance of electrical charge that exists between the interior of electrically excitable neurons and their surroundings.
- Move sodium ions outside the neuron and more potassium ions inside that neuron
action potential (Na+K+ pump) - ANSWER-i. When different ions cross the neuron membrane
ii. Stimulus first causes sodium channels to open and sodium ions rush into the neuron because more sodium outside cell and inside is negatively charged
Why does majority of the salt need to remain outside of the cell? - ANSWER-water would rush in and burst the cells
Pathophysiology - ANSWER-the study of how disease processes affect the normal function of the body
Pathogenesis - ANSWER-disease process from start to finish
Homeostasis - ANSWER-- A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; equilibrium
- uses osmosis and diffusion
risk factors - ANSWER-increase the likelihood of developing a disease
another term for signs and symptoms - ANSWER-clinical manifestations
subjective - ANSWER-- symptoms
- what the patient says they feel
- eg. headache, pain, nausea
objective - ANSWER-- signs
- what you can see
- eg. vitals
complications - ANSWER-- what I am at risk for because i have ________
- eg. myocardial infarction is a possible complication of hypertension
prophylaxis - ANSWER-- prevention of disease
- eg. antibiotics when you have surgery to prevent getting an infection
characteristics of undifferentiated cells - ANSWER-- stem cells
- no "job"
- blank canvas: can turn into anything
- if the undifferentiated cell is found outside of bone marrow, it is cancer
what types of cells can undifferentiated cells become? - ANSWER-RBC, WBC, Platelets
characteristics of differentiated cells - ANSWER-- have a job (eg. hair cell, liver cell, cardiac cell)
how do you create more of a differentiated cell? - ANSWER-mitosis- 2 daughter cells identical to the parent cell
what is meiosis - ANSWER-a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
pathologic - ANSWER-something bad happened to you
physiologic - ANSWER-normal function of the body
pathologic atrophy - ANSWER-broken bone, muscle atrophies from being in a cast
physiologic atrophy - ANSWER-aging occurs and muscles atrophy
atrophy - ANSWER-- decrease in size of cells
- Physiologic- reduced use of the tissue, insufficient nutrition, decreased neurologic or hormonal stimulation, and aging
- Pathologic- shrinkage of skeletal muscle when a limb is immobilized while in a cast for several weeks
hypertrophy - ANSWER-- increase in size of cells
- Physiologic- working out
- Pathologic- cardiac cells are stressed- heart is fat and over stressed- heart failure
Hyperplasia - ANSWER-- increase in number of cells
- Physiologic- uterine enlargement that occurs during pregnancy
- Pathologic- benign tumor, cyst, hormonal imbalance results in tissue growth (eg. Goiter)
metaplasia - ANSWER--Mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type
- Physiologic- developing calluses when you play guitar- tougher skin replaced
- Pathologic- smoking. Swapping one type of cell inside the lungs for a tougher type of cell to withstand the damage
dysplasia - ANSWER-- "normal-ish" cells
- pre-cancerous
anaplasia - ANSWER-- "crazy" abnormal cells
- cancer
what causes cellular adaptation? - ANSWER-transient intermittent cell injury
what causes cell death? - ANSWER-progressive severe cellular injury
apoptosis - ANSWER-- cell suicide
- planned
- contained: cell membrane stays intact
- no damage to other cells
necrosis - ANSWER-- unplanned cell death
- messy
- cell membrane is broken
- severe damage to surrounding cells
Who controls water in the body? - ANSWER-- hypothalamus: thirst mechanism
- aldosterone: keeps Na+
- ADH (antidiuretic hormone): keeps H2O
edema - ANSWER-- excessive fluid in the interstitial tissues
- causes swelling
- can be localized or generalized
causes of edema - ANSWER-- Decreased osmotic pressure
- increased hydrostatic pressure
- increased capillary permeability
osmotic pressure: edema - ANSWER-- PULL force
- pulls water out of the capillaries into the interstitial space
- not enough solutes in the capillaries- water says "boring! lets go to the tissues!"
Hyponatremia - ANSWER-low sodium in the blood (below 135)
hydrostatic pressure: edema - ANSWER-- PUSH force
- water pushed out of the capillaries into the interstitial space
- lots of solutes and water in the capillaries- water says "too much pressure! To the tissues!"
- can be caused by hypertension or clot
capillary permeability: edema - ANSWER-- endothelial cells become more permeable
- water cells go between permeable cells and into the interstitial space
hypovolemia - ANSWER-decreased blood volume
causes of hypovolemia - ANSWER-- decreased water intake
- increased sweating
- vomitting/ diarrhea
- DKA: diabetic keto acidosis (more sugar= kidneys try to flush it out using water)
s/s of hypovolemia - ANSWER-- tachycardia: heart is trying to help move blood
- hypotension (low blood pressure): tank is empty
- thirsty
- weak, confused
- dizzy, LOC changes
why is tachycardia a sign of hypovolemia? - ANSWER-cardiac output= heart rate X stroke volume
so if CO is low, HR increases to try to help
There is a VOLUME PROBLEM, so this doesn't help
What levels should Na+ be in the body? - ANSWER-135-145
Functions of sodium in the body - ANSWER-- fluid balance: more sodium= increased osmotic pressure
- Na+K+ pump
- muscle/nerve impulses
causes of sodium imbalance - ANSWER-- intake/ volume deficit (how much salt in relation to water?)
- trauma or tumor to/in brain
important things to ask yourself about sodium - ANSWER-- where is the water going?
- have to evaluate H2O and Na+ together
- its all about osmolality
what occurs in the body at a cellular level with hyponatremia? - ANSWER-- deficient sodium in the blood
- low solutes in blood, so water leaves blood and rushes into the brain cells
-vessels are left with low water levels
S/S of hyponatremia - ANSWER-- from loss of vascular volume
- fatigue
- low BP
- cramps
- thirst
-seizures
- cerebral edema (brain swelling)
- coma, death
what occurs in the body at a cellular level with hypernatremia? - ANSWER-- too much sodium in the blood
- high solutes in the vessels, so water rushes into the vascular space
- increased hydrostatic pressure in the vessels, so water leaves into interstitial space (edema)
- brain cells become dehydrated
S/S of Hypervolemia - ANSWER-- firm tissues (edema)
- agitated
- decreased output
- irrational thirst
- seizures, coma, death
What levels should K+ be in the body? - ANSWER-3.5-5.0 mmol/L
functions of K+ in the body - ANSWER-- maintain cardiac rhythms
- acid/base balance
- neuro/muscular impulses
What is K+ regulated by? - ANSWER-- renal system
- aldosterone: if too much K+, then aldosterone says to get rid of K+ and keep Na+
- excretion of excess K+ is through the kidneys
s/s of potassium imbalance - ANSWER-- arrhythmia
- parasthesis (pins and needles)
- muscle weakness
*need labs to tell if too much or too little*
What levels should Calcium be at in the body? - ANSWER-9-10.5 mg/dL
functions of calcium in the body - ANSWER-- bone density: vitamin D + Calcium= strong bones
- cardiac contractions
- regulates neuro/muscle impulses
what regulates calcium levels in the body? - ANSWER-- PTH (decreased Ca+ triggers release; pulls Ca+ from bones and sends to blood)
- calcitonin (increased Ca+ triggers release; decreased absorption of Ca+, increased excretion in kidneys, sends calcium to bones)
s/s of hypocalcemia - ANSWER-- spasticity/ twitching
- weak cardiac contractions (leads to arrhythmia)
- decreased bone density
s/s of hypercalcemia - ANSWER-- depressed neuro/muscular activity
- lethargy, confusion, personality changes
- increased cardiac contractions (arrhythmia)
- fractures (Ca+ in blood and not in bones)
what is a normal pH level in the body - ANSWER-7.35-7.45
How does the body compensate for respiratory acidosis? - ANSWER-increase secretion of H+ ions in urine
How does the body compensate for metabolic acidosis? - ANSWER-increase deep, rapid breathing to "blow off" CO2 (hyperventilating)
how does the body compensate for respiratory alkalosis? - ANSWER-urine retention to conserve H+ ions
how does the body compensate for metabolic alkalosis? - ANSWER-slow, shallow breathing to conserve CO2
A client suffers from renal failure, and is unable to produce urine anymore.
What acid base imbalance would you expect?
How would you expect the body to compensate? - ANSWER-- metabolic acidosis
- deep rapid respirations
A client has been hyperventilating from a panic attack
What acid base imbalance would you expect?
How would you expect the body to compensate? - ANSWER-- Respiratory Alkalosis
- Conserve H+ ions in urine
A client presents in metabolic alkalosis.
How would you expect the client to compensate? - ANSWER-slow shallow respirations
A client comes in to the ED with a narcotics overdose
What acid base imbalance would you expect?
How would you expect the body to compensate? - ANSWER-- Respiratory acidosis
- Increase excretion of H+ in urine
A client is in metabolic alkalosis.
How would you expect the body to compensate? - ANSWER-Slow shallow respirations
A client comes in with a ph of 7.49, after an anxiety attack.
What acid/base imbalance is this?
How would you expect the body to compensate? - ANSWER-- Resp alkalosis
- Conserve H+ in urine
A client presents with respiratory acidosis
How would you expect the body to compensate?
What is a potential cause of this imbalance? - ANSWER-- Increase H+ secretion in urine
- overdose
A client presents after 5 days of the stomach flu and a ph of 7.48
What acid base balance do you expect?
how will the body compensate? - ANSWER-- metabolic alkalosis
- slow, shallow respirations
what is hypoxia? - ANSWER-Hypoxia is a decreased or insufficient level of oxygen in the tissues/cells
how does hypoxia affect the body at a cellular level? - ANSWER-- oxygen deficit can interfere with ATP production
- no ATP leads to failure of Na+K+ pumps and buildup of sodium inside the cell
- sodium buildup leads to osmosis and increases cellular pressure and an eventual burst of the cell
-leads to necrosis and disruption of homeostasis
how is homeostasis maintained? - ANSWER-- blood pressure
- body temperature
- fluid balance
onset - ANSWER-may be sudden and obvious or acute
acute condition - ANSWER-a short-term illness that develops quickly with marked signs such as high fever or severe pain
chronic condition - ANSWER-often a milder condition developing gradually, such as rheumatoid arthritis, but it persists for a long time and usually causes more permanent tissue damage.
latent condition - ANSWER-no clinical signs are evident, characterizes some diseases
prognosis - ANSWER-defines the probability or likelihood for recovery or other outcomes
morbidity - ANSWER-indicates the disease rates within a group
mortality - ANSWER-figures indicate the relative number of deaths resulting from a particular disease
epidemiology - ANSWER-the science of tracking the pattern or occurrence of disease
epidemic - ANSWER-occur when there are a higher than expected number of cases of an infectious disease within a given area
occurence - ANSWER-tracked by recording two factors, the incidence and the prevalence
where is fluid located inside the body? - ANSWER-- intracellular compartment
- inside the cells
- extracellular compart [Show Less]