TEAS 6 All Sections PREP (Science, English, Reading and Math): Everything You Need (100% Guarantee).
TEAS 6 ALL SECTIONS PREP:
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ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body.
Microscopic Anatomy: examines cells and molecules.
Cytology: study of cells.
Histology: study of tissues.
Physiology: is the study of functions of anatomical structures.
*Smallest living is a CELL.
*Smallest organisms is a ATOM.
Levels of Hierarchy
Atom- the most basic complete unit of an element.
Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Organelles- are cells parts that function within a cell.
Cells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual cell.
Tissues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs.
Organ- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two or more similar tissues.
Organ System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body: circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular and nervous.
Humans have 11 Organ Systems.
Cells Structure
• Nucleus- holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin
• Ribosomes- small structures that build proteins “amino acids”.
• Golgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell.
• Vacuoles- storage, digestion and waste removal.
• Cytoskeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape/support cell.
• Microtubules- part of the cytoskeletal.
• Cytosol- liquid material in cell.
• Cell membrane- separate internal and external cellular environment allows material to enter and exit cell.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum- smooth or rough transport system of the cell.
• Mitochondria- generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular respiration
Animal Cells
Centrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis.
Centriole- cylinders involved in cellular division.
Lysosomes- the purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or break down the cell when it dies.
Cilia- cause cell to move.
Flagella- whip tail to move cell.
TISSUES:
Group of CELLS.
Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective.
1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin
2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, Lymph.
It protects and binds body parts.
a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support
Fibrous
b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and defends against disease.
c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells
3. Muscle: supports and move body
Smooth
Cardiac
Skeletal
4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Neurons: control responses to changes in environment.
Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Interphase - Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material.
Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form.
Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle structure.
Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes.
Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched.
Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell.
Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two. Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction.
Gametes in female = Egg
Gametes in Male = Sperm
Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote.
Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction.
1. Respiratory System
• main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction.
Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum.
External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the entrances into the nasal cavity
The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production.
Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus.
Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation.
Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs.
• Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse.
Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs.
Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli
Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively.
Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch
– an indentation for the heart’s apex.
The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement.
• Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface.
• Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall.
• Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together.
Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue.
Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body.
• Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs.
• Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs.
Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing.
Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal. Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal. Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse.
Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH.
Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing.
Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections.
2. Cardiovascular System
Heart
• Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity.
• Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system
• Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex points to left hip.
Heart Coverings
• Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits.
Heart Layers
• Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium.
• Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective tissue forming the fibrous skeleton.
• Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers.
4 chambers: 2 Atria, 2 Ventricles
Atria- the superior chambers, ear like extensions of the atria, receiving chambers limited pumping means thin walls.
Ventricles- the inferior chambers, majority of heart volume, pumping chambers thick walls.
Sulci – the indentations on the outer heart surface, correspond between chambers contains fats and vessels.
Septa- the internal walls that divide the chambers.
Right Atrium
• Superior Vena Cava- blood returning from above the diaphragm.
• Inferior Vena Cava - blood returning from below the diaphragm.
• Coronary Sinus- blood returning from the heart wall.
Left Atrium
• 4 pulmonary veins- blood returning from lungs.
Right Ventricle
• Receives blood from the right atrium.
• Blood exits into the pulmonary trunk to lungs.
Left Ventricle
• Receives blood from the left atrium
• Blood exits into the aorta to the body.
**Blood only pass through ½ of the heart at a time, and therefore must pass through the heart twice to complete circulation.
Pulmonary Circuit
• The pathway from the heart to the lungs and back.
• Is pumped by the right half of the heart
• Blood leaves –O2 and returns +O2
Systemic Circuit
• The pathway from the heart to the body’s tissues and back
• Is pumped by the left half of the heart
• Blood leaves +O2 and returns –O2
CIRCULATION
Superior & Inferior Vena Cava --- Right Atrium- Tricuspid Valve- Right Ventricle -- Pulmonary Semi Lunar Valve-- Pulmonary Trunk -- Lungs- Heart- Four Pulmonary Veins---- Left Atrium --- Mitral Valve-- Left Ventricle- Aortic Semilunar Valve-- Aorta
Coronary Circulation- the series of vessels that supply blood flow to the wall of the heart and beginning at the aorta and ending at the right atrium.
Atrioventricular Valves
• Separate an atrium from a ventricle.
• Prevent backflow into the atrium
Tricuspid Valve – separates right atrium from right ventricle
Bicuspid Valve – separates left atrium from left ventricle. Also, known as mitral valve.
Sinoatrial Node- in the right atrium, the “pacemaker” whose cells generate the sinus rhythm.
Heart Sounds- the “lub” and “dub”
• Lub- the sound produced by the closure of the AV valves. (mitral and tricuspid valves)
• Dub- the sound of produced by the closure of the semilunar valves.
Systole- the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood “contraction”
Diastole- The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood “relaxation”
Cardiac Cells
• Large amount of mitochondria for endurance
• Generate electrical impulses.
• Interconnected- fibers are linked and work in unison.
Arteries- blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body.
Veins- blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart.
Blood
• Connective tissue
• pH- 7.35-7.45
• Volume- 4-6L
Functions- Transport of hormones gases and nutrients, etc. Regulation of pH, body temp and water balance. Protection from blood loss and infection.
Plasma – liquid component of blood composed of water, plasma proteins and non-protein solutes.
Erythrocytes- red blood cells lack nucleus, functions of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport.
Leukocytes- white blood cells
Thrombocytes- platelets
Hemoglobin- protein composing 97% of RBC volume.
• Globin- amino acid based portion with 2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains
• Heme- pigment portion with a central iron atom. 4 (one per globin chain)
Hematopoiesis- blood cell formation occurs in the bone marrow.
Leukocytes- white blood cells, possess nuclei and organelles, function is to provide immune responses.
T-cells – target virally infected cells.
B-cells- make antibodies.
Lymphatic System - Series of vessels, tissues and organs performing 2 major functions:
• Vessels return to the blood any fluids and proteins that leaked into tissues.
• Tissues and organs house cells for immune functioning.
Lymphatic vessels – the series of vessels draining lymph, returning it to the blood in a unidirectional flow.
Lymphoid cells
• Lymphocytes – the T cells and B cells that fight disease-causing pathogens.
• Plasma cells – specialized B cells that produce antibodies.
• Macrophages – phagocytize any foreign cells or debris.
• Dendritic cells – specialized phagocytes with cellular projections.
• Reticular cells – produce the web of reticular fibers (stroma) that support the lymphoid cells.
Lymph – the protein-rich, interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels.
Lacteals – specialized lymphatic capillaries of the small intestine that absorb lymph that is high in fat content, called chyle.
Lymph nodes – the most abundant lymphoid organs, scattered amongst the lymphatic vessels, and clustered in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions
• Filter lymph of foreign cells and debris via phagocytes
• Activate the immune system by stimulating lymphocytes
3. Gastrointestinal System (Digestive System)
Structures of the Digestive Tract:
• Alimentary canal - The continuous tube from mouth to anus whose organs perform various digestive functions
• Accessory structures - the additional organs and glands that play a role in digestion
Functions of the Digestive System:
• Ingestion - taking food into the alimentary canal at the mouth.
• Propulsion - the movement of food through the alimentary canal.
• Peristalsis – waves of muscle contraction that propel food.
• Mechanical digestion - physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces.
• Segmentation – contractions of the alimentary canal that mixes food.
• Chemical digestion - food molecules are broken down via enzymes.
• Absorption - transport of digested materials from lumen through an epithelium into the blood or lymph.
• Defecation – removal of indigestible materials through the anus.
Oral cavity - start of the alimentary canal where ingestion occurs. Begins mechanical digestion via chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion via enzymes.
• Teeth - bony structures used in mastication.
• Tongue – skeletal muscle used to manipulate food and form a bolus.
• Palate – roof of the oral cavity, hard and soft regions.
• Uvula – extension of the soft palate, blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing.
Salivary glands – paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to moisten food and cleanse the oral cavity.
Saliva – secretion containing salivary amylase which begins chemical digestion of starches. Also contains IgA antibodies and lysozymes to clear potential pathogens.
Pharynx - Begins propulsion, transporting food from the oral cavity to the esophagus, performing the act of deglutition (swallowing)
• Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transport food
Deglutition – when swallowing, the elevation of the larynx and uvula block the respiratory passages ensuring food enters the esophagus.
Stomach – stores food, performing mechanical digestion via churning and chemical digestion via enzymes.
Chyme – the acidic, paste-like substance passed to the small intestine after about 4 hours.
Regions: The cardia is nearest to the esophagus, the fundus is the superior dome, the body is the central region, and the pylorus is nearest the small intestine
Gastric ulcers – erosion of the stomach wall, typically caused by a bacterium.
Pyloric sphincter – circular muscle regulating chyme movement into the small intestine.
Gastric pits/glands – invaginations of the stomach mucosa containing cells that produce the gastric juices.
• Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen that quickly becomes pepsin, a protein enzyme that works best in acidic pH.
• Parietal cells – secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), to produce acidic environment.
• Mucous neck cells – produce mucus that with the mucous of goblet cells protects the mucosa.
• Enteroendocrine cells – secrete local hormones to regulate stomach activity.
Small intestine – coiled digestive organ transporting food from stomach to large intestine. Completes digestion and performs all nutrient absorption. Receives secretions form liver, gall bladder, and pancreas.
Regions – divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi) – regulates the entrance of secretions from the liver, gall bladder and pancreas into the duodenum.
Specializations for absorption:
• Villi– finger-like projections of the mucosa that increase surface area of the epithelium. Each villus contains a capillary bed and a lacteal for nutrient absorption.
• Intestinal crypts – invaginations producing intestinal juices, a mucous secretion.
• Microvilli – finger-like extensions of the epithelial cell membranes with attached “brush border enzymes,” further increasing surface area.
Liver – a 4-lobed gland whose digestive function is the production of bile.
Bile – a green, alkaline fluid containing bilirubin pigment and bile salts that perform emulsification of fats. Drains from the liver via the hepatic ducts.
Emulsification – the physical breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets, thus increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion. [Show Less]