Bundle
ATI TEAS 6 FILES
8 Items
TEAS 6 All Sections PREP (Science, English, Reading and Math): Everything You Need
TEAS 6 All Sections PREP (Science, English, Reading and Math): Everything You Need (100% Guarantee). TEAS 6 ALL SECTIONS PREP: EVERYT... [Show More] HING YOU NEED (100% Guarantee) ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Anatomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body. Microscopic Anatomy: examines cells and molecules. Cytology: study of cells. Histology: study of tissues. Physiology: is the study of functions of anatomical structures. *Smallest living is a CELL. *Smallest organisms is a ATOM. Levels of Hierarchy Atom- the most basic complete unit of an element. Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. Organelles- are cells parts that function within a cell. Cells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual cell. Tissues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs. Organ- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two or more similar tissues. Organ System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body: circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular and nervous. Humans have 11 Organ Systems. Cells Structure • Nucleus- holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin • Ribosomes- small structures that build proteins “amino acids”. • Golgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell. • Vacuoles- storage, digestion and waste removal. • Cytoskeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape/support cell. • Microtubules- part of the cytoskeletal. • Cytosol- liquid material in cell. • Cell membrane- separate internal and external cellular environment allows material to enter and exit cell. • Endoplasmic Reticulum- smooth or rough transport system of the cell. • Mitochondria- generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular respiration Animal Cells Centrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis. Centriole- cylinders involved in cellular division. Lysosomes- the purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or break down the cell when it dies. Cilia- cause cell to move. Flagella- whip tail to move cell. TISSUES: Group of CELLS. Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective. 1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin 2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, Lymph. It protects and binds body parts. a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support Fibrous b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and defends against disease. c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells 3. Muscle: supports and move body Smooth Cardiac Skeletal 4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons: control responses to changes in environment. Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Interphase - Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material. Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form. Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle structure. Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes. Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched. Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell. Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two. Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction. Gametes in female = Egg Gametes in Male = Sperm Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote. Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction. 1. Respiratory System • main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction. Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum. External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the entrances into the nasal cavity The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production. Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus. Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation. Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs. • Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse. Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs. Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively. Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch – an indentation for the heart’s apex. The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement. • Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface. • Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall. • Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together. Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue. Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body. • Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs. • Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs. Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing. Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal. Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal. Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse. Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH. Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing. Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections. 2. Cardiovascular System Heart • Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity. • Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system • Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex points to left hip. Heart Coverings • Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits. Heart Layers • Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium. • Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective tissue forming the fibrous skeleton. • Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers. 4 chambers: 2 Atria, 2 Ventricles Atria- the superior chambers, ear like extensions of the atria, receiving chambers limited pumping means thin walls. Ventricles- the inferior chambers, majority of heart volume, pumping chambers thick walls. Sulci – the indentations on the outer heart surface, correspond between chambers contains fats and vessels. Septa- the internal walls that divide the chambers. Right Atrium • Superior Vena Cava- blood returning from above the diaphragm. • Inferior Vena Cava - blood returning from below the diaphragm. • Coronary Sinus- blood returning from the heart wall. Left Atrium • 4 pulmonary veins- blood returning from lungs. Right Ventricle • Receives blood from the right atrium. • Blood exits into the pulmonary trunk to lungs. Left Ventricle • Receives blood from the left atrium • Blood exits into the aorta to the body. **Blood only pass through ½ of the heart at a time, and therefore must pass through the heart twice to complete circulation. Pulmonary Circuit • The pathway from the heart to the lungs and back. • Is pumped by the right half of the heart • Blood leaves –O2 and returns +O2 Systemic Circuit • The pathway from the heart to the body’s tissues and back • Is pumped by the left half of the heart • Blood leaves +O2 and returns –O2 CIRCULATION Superior & Inferior Vena Cava --- Right Atrium- Tricuspid Valve- Right Ventricle -- Pulmonary Semi Lunar Valve-- Pulmonary Trunk -- Lungs- Heart- Four Pulmonary Veins---- Left Atrium --- Mitral Valve-- Left Ventricle- Aortic Semilunar Valve-- Aorta Coronary Circulation- the series of vessels that supply blood flow to the wall of the heart and beginning at the aorta and ending at the right atrium. Atrioventricular Valves • Separate an atrium from a ventricle. • Prevent backflow into the atrium Tricuspid Valve – separates right atrium from right ventricle Bicuspid Valve – separates left atrium from left ventricle. Also, known as mitral valve. Sinoatrial Node- in the right atrium, the “pacemaker” whose cells generate the sinus rhythm. Heart Sounds- the “lub” and “dub” • Lub- the sound produced by the closure of the AV valves. (mitral and tricuspid valves) • Dub- the sound of produced by the closure of the semilunar valves. Systole- the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood “contraction” Diastole- The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood “relaxation” Cardiac Cells • Large amount of mitochondria for endurance • Generate electrical impulses. • Interconnected- fibers are linked and work in unison. Arteries- blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body. Veins- blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Blood • Connective tissue • pH- 7.35-7.45 • Volume- 4-6L Functions- Transport of hormones gases and nutrients, etc. Regulation of pH, body temp and water balance. Protection from blood loss and infection. Plasma – liquid component of blood composed of water, plasma proteins and non-protein solutes. Erythrocytes- red blood cells lack nucleus, functions of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Leukocytes- white blood cells Thrombocytes- platelets Hemoglobin- protein composing 97% of RBC volume. • Globin- amino acid based portion with 2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains • Heme- pigment portion with a central iron atom. 4 (one per globin chain) Hematopoiesis- blood cell formation occurs in the bone marrow. Leukocytes- white blood cells, possess nuclei and organelles, function is to provide immune responses. T-cells – target virally infected cells. B-cells- make antibodies. Lymphatic System - Series of vessels, tissues and organs performing 2 major functions: • Vessels return to the blood any fluids and proteins that leaked into tissues. • Tissues and organs house cells for immune functioning. Lymphatic vessels – the series of vessels draining lymph, returning it to the blood in a unidirectional flow. Lymphoid cells • Lymphocytes – the T cells and B cells that fight disease-causing pathogens. • Plasma cells – specialized B cells that produce antibodies. • Macrophages – phagocytize any foreign cells or debris. • Dendritic cells – specialized phagocytes with cellular projections. • Reticular cells – produce the web of reticular fibers (stroma) that support the lymphoid cells. Lymph – the protein-rich, interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels. Lacteals – specialized lymphatic capillaries of the small intestine that absorb lymph that is high in fat content, called chyle. Lymph nodes – the most abundant lymphoid organs, scattered amongst the lymphatic vessels, and clustered in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions • Filter lymph of foreign cells and debris via phagocytes • Activate the immune system by stimulating lymphocytes 3. Gastrointestinal System (Digestive System) Structures of the Digestive Tract: • Alimentary canal - The continuous tube from mouth to anus whose organs perform various digestive functions • Accessory structures - the additional organs and glands that play a role in digestion Functions of the Digestive System: • Ingestion - taking food into the alimentary canal at the mouth. • Propulsion - the movement of food through the alimentary canal. • Peristalsis – waves of muscle contraction that propel food. • Mechanical digestion - physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. • Segmentation – contractions of the alimentary canal that mixes food. • Chemical digestion - food molecules are broken down via enzymes. • Absorption - transport of digested materials from lumen through an epithelium into the blood or lymph. • Defecation – removal of indigestible materials through the anus. Oral cavity - start of the alimentary canal where ingestion occurs. Begins mechanical digestion via chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion via enzymes. • Teeth - bony structures used in mastication. • Tongue – skeletal muscle used to manipulate food and form a bolus. • Palate – roof of the oral cavity, hard and soft regions. • Uvula – extension of the soft palate, blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing. Salivary glands – paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to moisten food and cleanse the oral cavity. Saliva – secretion containing salivary amylase which begins chemical digestion of starches. Also contains IgA antibodies and lysozymes to clear potential pathogens. Pharynx - Begins propulsion, transporting food from the oral cavity to the esophagus, performing the act of deglutition (swallowing) • Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transport food Deglutition – when swallowing, the elevation of the larynx and uvula block the respiratory passages ensuring food enters the esophagus. Stomach – stores food, performing mechanical digestion via churning and chemical digestion via enzymes. Chyme – the acidic, paste-like substance passed to the small intestine after about 4 hours. Regions: The cardia is nearest to the esophagus, the fundus is the superior dome, the body is the central region, and the pylorus is nearest the small intestine Gastric ulcers – erosion of the stomach wall, typically caused by a bacterium. Pyloric sphincter – circular muscle regulating chyme movement into the small intestine. Gastric pits/glands – invaginations of the stomach mucosa containing cells that produce the gastric juices. • Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen that quickly becomes pepsin, a protein enzyme that works best in acidic pH. • Parietal cells – secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), to produce acidic environment. • Mucous neck cells – produce mucus that with the mucous of goblet cells protects the mucosa. • Enteroendocrine cells – secrete local hormones to regulate stomach activity. Small intestine – coiled digestive organ transporting food from stomach to large intestine. Completes digestion and performs all nutrient absorption. Receives secretions form liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. Regions – divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi) – regulates the entrance of secretions from the liver, gall bladder and pancreas into the duodenum. Specializations for absorption: • Villi– finger-like projections of the mucosa that increase surface area of the epithelium. Each villus contains a capillary bed and a lacteal for nutrient absorption. • Intestinal crypts – invaginations producing intestinal juices, a mucous secretion. • Microvilli – finger-like extensions of the epithelial cell membranes with attached “brush border enzymes,” further increasing surface area. Liver – a 4-lobed gland whose digestive function is the production of bile. Bile – a green, alkaline fluid containing bilirubin pigment and bile salts that perform emulsification of fats. Drains from the liver via the hepatic ducts. Emulsification – the physical breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets, thus increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion. [Show Less]
- Exam
- $10.45
- 0
- 531
ATI TEAS 6 Study Guide: Reading, Math, Science and English Sections (Latest Update) Rated A+
ATI TEAS 6 Study Guide: Reading, Math, Science and English Sections (Latest Update) Rated A+ Reading Section: Passages that you might have: K... [Show More] ing Henry VII- Expository The word infamous in the passage means – Notorious Social Media- Persuasive It’s talking how now of days there’s a lot of news on the internet, which some are true and some are fakes. People just share them depends on how they feel about it. It’s trying to get people to fact checking before just posting random information. (By Tamika Y.) UFO- Narrative It’s talking about aliens, and an old man that got lost. (READ THE PASSAGE, Is on The GROUP :) Greek Theater- Expository The robbery passage (Dog and Humans are Best friend)- Persuasive When it asks how would you rename this passage answer is (Jewel Thief on the Lose) Frida Kahlo- Expository/ Informative They will ask you to put her life in chronological order and the answer to that question is: First, she got hit by a train; Next, she started drawing pictures of herself; Then, she married Diego. (Credit to Tamika Young for this) Casino Passage- Persuasive It’s trying to explain how is better to go to a Casino then buying a lottery ticket. Buying a lottery ticket, you have a lowest change of winning than going to a Casino and playing. The Chili Recipe- Expository Read carefully the Recipe and the questions. One of the answers is to rinse the beans first. Central Park Passage- Expository / Informative All I remember is that it’s a famous park in New York. The passage will ask you to put the sentences in chronological order. (By Tamika Y.) Time Management- Chimney Passage- Type of Passages: Expository: Something you find in an academic journal, a recipe, etc. (Very technical) (Teach, Inform, or explain.) Technical: Is like following steps to complete something. Narrative: Telling a story and entertain Persuasive: Making you believe something or to do something. Descriptive: Give physical details or provide unique characteristics Most know this: Author Purpose: His reason to write a specific topic. Theme: The subject to talk, a piece of writing, a person thoughts. Topic: that part of a sentence about which something is said. (a conversation) Main Idea: Is usually in the first sentence, overall idea of the paragraph. Fact: Something that it can be prove is true. Opinion: A view or judgment. Bia: Against something or someone. Compare: two or more Inform: Give facts Entertain: Fiction Express: Feelings Stereotypes: A characteristics ascribed to groups of people involving gender, race, origin, etc. Cause and Effect: The author describes a situation and then its effects. Compare and Contrast: The author explores the similarities and differences between two or more things. Chronological: The author list events in the order in which they happened. Mood: Influences a reader emotional state in the piece. Tone: Describes the author’s attitude toward the topic. To Respond to Questions, you Should know this: Almanac: A book that gives you important dates such tidal waves, astronomical events, etc. Thesaurus: A dictionary that has definitions, synonyms and antonyms. Bibliography: A list of books, magazines, articles, etc. Biography: Story of someone written by someone else. Autobiography: Story of someone written by the same person. Atlas: A book of maps or charts. Appendix: A section or table at the end of the book. Index: Reference in alphabetical order to where everything is in the book. Glossary: Alphabetical list of terms of words with definition. The word Disseminate is in one the Passages and they ask you what does it means: Answer will be (Spread of disperse) Metaphor: A figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. Example: Noah Has a heart of a lion Simile: A comparison of two different things using the words LIKE or AS. Example: On her first day of school, Jane was as cool as a cucumber. Forum: Online message board. Rhetorical: Used for effect not meaning. Memorandum: A written informal note usually used for business purposes. Sequential: Following SET of Orders. (First, Second, Third, Next, While, Last, Before, After) Anecdote: A short story that illustrates a concept but isn’t the main idea. Math Section: Percentages (Very Important, Must Know): Covert Decimal to Percent by: Multiplying by 100 Convert Percent to Decimal by: Divide by 100 Convert Decimal to a Fraction by: Milli means: one thousand of something 1Liter (L) = 1000mL 1 Yard (Yd.) = 3 Feet (Ft) 12 Foot = 4Yd 1inch = 12 Ft Less than < Less or Equal than ≤ Greater than > Greater or Equal than ≥ Irrational Number: A number that can NOT Be expressed as terminating or repeating decimals. Rational Numbers: A number that can be expresses as a fraction. • Example: 1/2 Contextual: Related to surrounding content. Erroneous: Incorrect Extraneous: Irrelevant Solution: The answer Terminate: To end Percent means: Per 100 Area of a circle: A=π × r^2 Area formula of a Square: A= L × L^2 Area of a rectangle: A= L × W Area of a triangle: A= ½ × b × h ALWAYS REMEMBER: King Henry Die By Drinking Chocolate Milk Example of a question that could be on the Test: What number is 20% of 8? • You must multiply 20% × 8 = 160 • 160 divided by 100= 1.6 24 is what % of 250? • 24 divided by 250 = 0.096 • Then multiply 0.096 times 100 to get the percent which = 9.6% 5/8 of my class passed. What percentage of students in my class failed? • 5 divided by 8 = 62.5 • 100 – 62.5= 37.5 didn’t passed, but you must convert this into a fraction • The answer will be 3/8 Failed. When Solving an equation always use PENDAS: Practice Adding and Subtracting Fractions: Practice Multiplication and Division Fractions: Practice Absolute Value Problems: Percent Decrease: PD= Original amount – New Amount/ Original Amount × 100 Percent Increase: PI= New Amount – Original Amount/ New Amount × 100 Proportions: Problem that could be on the test: • A store sells two kinds of candles, scented and unscented. The scented burn 1/12 inches in 20 mins. The unscented burns 1/16 inches in 30 mins. Which type of candle burns in 1 Hour and what is its burn rate? 60 Minutes = 1 Hour Scented Candle • 20 Minutes in an hour goes 3 Times (20+20+20=60) • 1/12 *3 = 3/12 – You got to simplify so it will be ¼ Unscented Candle • 30 Minutes in an hour goes 2 times (30+30=60) • 1/16 *2 = 2/16 – You got to simplify so it will be 1/8 The answer will be the scented candle burn in 1 hour and its burn rate is ¼ • A worker is paid 2,350 monthly and has $468 withheld from each monthly paycheck. Which of the following is her annual salary? A. 27,732 B. 22,584 C. 28,200 D. 33,816 is Paid $2350 monthly - $468 withheld each monthly paycheck = $1882 * 12 month = $22584 Annual Salar You must know this because they will ask you to round decimals up. Example: There’s a question in the teas that in order for you to get it right you need to know the sides of the triangle: Must know how to identify this chart: Must arrange the number from least to greatest or greatest to least. Must know MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE and RANGE! SCIENCE SECTION: Cell Parts and their Functions Mitochondria- generate ATP Golgi Apparatus- package proteins Lysosomes- digest protein, carbs, and lipids. And gets rid of worn out particles Ribosomes- protein synthesis Nucleus- where DNA is located and tells cells their functions Peroxisomes- oxidation and detoxification What is found in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes cells? - Cell Membrane/Plasma membrane, DNA, Ribosomes How does water move through the cell membranes? - Proteins Respiratory System What transport is gas exchange? Passive transport How does gas exchange occur? –Diffusion Where does gas exchange occur? –Alveoli What is the cause of emphysema? -chemical pollutants, smoke What is responsible for speech? –larynx What control the breathing process? - Medulla oblongata Cardiovascular System What carries oxygenated blood? –An artery moving blood from the heart to a muscle What is function of lymph nodes? - filter debris from intracellular spaces What is the function of the spleen? - Filter blood and help fight infections What is the most abundant cells? - Red blood cells What is the pacemaker of the heart? - Sinoatrial node What is the function of the circulatory system? –Transport hormones ***Know the blood flow of the heart*** Gastrointestinal System What are the digestive enzymes? – Pepsin, Mucus, Hydrochloric What neutralizes stomach acid? - Bile/Sodium bicarbonate What are gastrulation cells? - Germ cells Where is bile stored? - Gallbladder What produces bile? -Liver What does villi do? - Increase surface area absorption Enzyme lipase function? - Breakdown lipids Enzyme protease function? - Breakdown proteins Enzyme amylase function? - Breakdown carbs Where are nutrients absorbed? - Small intestine Where is water and vitamin k absorbed? – Large Intestine Neuromuscular System What happens if acetylcholinesterase is inhibited at the synapse? - Causes a muscle stimulation What is function of a neuron? - transmit information What is the function of myelin sheath? - Increase speed of electrical signals What causes goosebumps? - Arrector pili motor muscles/ sympathetic response What is function for actin and myosin? - Responsible for muscle movement What is function of a synapse? - Allow neurons to pass signals to neurons and muscles What is the sympathetic response responsible for? - Fight-or-flight What is the parasympathetic response responsible for? - Rest-and-Digest What makes up the central nervous system? - Brain and Spinal cord Cerebellum function? - Process and store information Medulla oblongata function? - Breathing Reproductive System Where is sperm produced? - Testes Where does fertilization occur? - Fallopian tubes What connects the cervix to the vagina? The vagina opening What is the function of the placenta? - Nourish fetus and remove waste Where are gametes produced? - Testes and Ovaries What stage is zygote in gestation? - First When is zygote formed? Is formed 22-26 hours after fertilization. What connects the ovaries and uterus? - Fallopian tubes Integumentary System What are the three skin layers? – Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis • What are the epidermis layers? – “Come Let’s Get Sun Burned” (TOP to BOTTOM) • Stratum Corneum- all dead cells • Stratum Lucidum- dead cells in thick skin • Stratum Granulosum- mixture of old cells that are alive and dying cells • Stratum Spinosum- fairly young and happy cells • Stratum Basale- new healthy cells being produced (melanin is in this layer) What are sweat glands? - Eccrine glands, sudoriferous glands (stinky sweat) In which skin layer are sweat glands found? –Dermis What are oil glands? – Sebaceous (Sebum) Where skin layer are oil glands found? -Dermis What is the function of skin? – Thermoregulation/Homeostasis What is keratin? – Hair, nails What skin layer is keratin found? - Dermis Where is adipose/fat tissue located? - Hypodermis/Subcutaneous layer Which of the following are excreted through the skin? Urea, blood, and alcohol Endocrine System What organ needs iodine? - Thyroid Which gland shrinks with age? - Thymus What regulates sleep? – Pineal What secretes melatonin? Pineal What secretes insulin? - Pancreas What secretes alpha and beta cells? - Pancreas What are alpha cells? Glucagon What are beta cells? - Insulin What is the master gland? - Pituitary Pituitary- FSH, TSH, GH Hypothalamus- ADH, Oxytocin ***KNOW ALL HORMONES AND WHAT THEY SECRETE*** Genitourinary System What is the functional unit of the kidney? - Nephron What is the function of the kidney? - filter blood, create urine, and stabilize water What are kidney two major regions? – Cortex and medulla What regulated blood pressure? - Renin What transports sperm? – Vas Deferens and Urethra Immune System Active immunity- Vaccination Passive Immunity- Breastfeeding Where are blood cells produced? - Bone Marrow What does an increase in white blood cells mean? - Infection Macrophages? - respond to foreign substances T Lymphocytes- attacks viruses B Lymphocytes- SPECIFIC Bacteria Skeletal System What is osteoporosis? - brittle fragile bones What causes osteoporosis? Osteoclast and osteoblast (google which does what in osteoporosis) What is osteoblast? -Build bone What is osteoclast? - remove bone What is a long bone? – Femur, tibia What is a short bone? - Tarsals, What is a flat bone? - Skull ***KNOW THE BONE HEALING FORMATION STEPS (just google the image) A Few QUESTIONS: Which of the following blood vessels would contain highly oxygenated blood? • Pulmonary Veins. When does the nuclear division of somatic cells take place during cellular reproduction? • Mitosis Which organ gets rid of metabolic waste? • Kidney What are the pores in the nuclear envelope used for? • Regulate import and export of material between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Where does fertilization begin? • In the end of the fallopian tubes away from the uterus close to the ovaries. What gland produces TSH? • Pituitary gland. What are the 2 major parts of the nervous system? • CNS/PNS What produces bile? • Liver, store in gallbladder. Remember: A goes with T and G goes with C. What’s the job or amylase and lipase? • Amylase helps your body break down starch. • Lipase helps your body digest fats. Where does gas exchange occurs? • It occurs in the lungs between the alveoli and a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries. What is the function of the spleen? • The spleen plays multiple supporting roles in the body. It acts as a filter for blood as part of the immune system. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there. The spleen also helps fight certain kinds of bacteria that cause pneumonia and meningitis. What controls the breathing process? • Diaphragm. What it’s the function of villi in the small intestine? • they help with nutrient absorption. What gland produces melatonin? • Pineal gland. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? • Prokaryotic cells DO NOT contain organelles, eukaryotic cells DO. Which of the following membranes protects the brain and the spinal cord? • Meninges. The center of an atom is nucleus. What is the nucleus composed of? • Protons and Electrons. Osteoporosis result from what? • A decline of osteoblast activity while osteoclast activity continues at expected levels. What is the only artery in the body to carry oxygen poor blood? • Pulmonary artery. Which of the following immunoglobin is found in a mother’s breast milk? • lgA What are the smallest arteries called? • Arterioles During the Krebs cycle of cellular respiration, glucose molecules are consumed. For every single consumed glucose molecule, what is produced? • 2ATP, 6 Carbon and 6NADH. Where is the sebaceous gland located? What is the longest phase of the cell cycle? • Interphase. Kidneys remove which of the following from the blood? • Salts. What is the first stage of gestation? • Zygote What do plasma cells secrete? • Antibiotics. The myocardium is the layer of the heart that contains? • Smooth muscles. Where are water and vitamin stored? • Large Intestine. ENGLISH SECTION: • What is “singing” in the sentence: Singing is my favorite thing to do. • A gerund, or verb that acts as a noun. • Synonym of Necessitate: Entail, involve, require, demands, warrants. • Is “Measles” singular? • Yes. • What is the meaning of disseminate? To disperse and spread out. • What is the plural of crisis? Crises. • What is the proper spelling below? Reccommendation Rekomendation Recommendation Recommendation • Which of the following sentences correctly uses subject verb agreement? Computers has made our jobs easier. Those two girls in the first row is best friends. The dogs in our backyard growls late at night. The tennis balls rolls into the parking lot. Homograph: words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and origins. Homophone: words pronounced alike but with different meaning. Colon: used to introduce a list or quote, ratio, and time. Comma: before “and” in a simple series of items. Affix: letters added to the beginning or ending of a word to change its meaning. Prefix: an affix that’s added in front of a word. Suffix: an affix that appears at the end of the word. Derivation: determining the origin of a word. Inflection: details of how a word is expressed to modify its tone or meaning. Morpheme: the smallest unit in grammar. Root: a word to which an affix can be attached. Simple Subject: the main word or word group that tells whom or what the sentence is about. Simple predicate: the verb. Complete predicate: consists of a verb and all the words that describe the verb and complete its meaning. Direct object: the object that receives the direct action of the verb. Prepositional modifier: what does it feels. Diction: a writer’s or speaker’s choice of words. Fragment: an incomplete sentence; a break in a sentence. Perfective: a verb for an object that has been completed Prescriptive grammar: set of grammatical rules prescribed by a language authority. Progressive: a verb that shows something happening. Tense: past, present or future. Transition word: words that link or introduce ideas. Subject verb agreement: plural subjects must have a plural verb. Singular subject must have a singular verb. Pronoun antecedent agreement: pronouns and antecedents must agree in number and gender. Colloquialism: the use of informal words, phrases or even slang in a piece of writing. First person: uses the subject pronoun “I”. Second person: uses the subject pronoun “YOU”. Third person: uses the subject pronoun “He, She, and They”. Adverb: a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Article: words (a and an) that refers to nouns. Complement: sentence part that gives more information about a subject or object. Conjunction: a word that joins two phrases or sentences. Independent clause: a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. Dependent clause: a phrase that can’t stand alone as complete sentence. Indirect object: the person or thing to whom or which something is done. Interjection: a word that expresses emotion. Modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that qualifies or describes another word, phrase, or clause. Object: a word or phrase that receives the action of a verb. Predicate: tells something about the subject. Preposition: a word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word. Pronoun: a word that takes place of a noun. Subject: the main noun or pronoun that tells what’s the sentence about. Simple Sentence: a sentence that is made up only by one independent clause. Complex Sentence: is made up with at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. Compound Complex Sentence: it contains two or more independent clauses and one independent clause. Adjective: a word that describes a noun. Clause: a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Preposition: a word used to show the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence. Active voice: Herman wrote the paper. Passive voice: The paper was written by Herman. Context clues: clues in surrounding text that help the reader determine the meaning of an unknown word. Primary source: first-hand account of the event that was created at about the time the event occurred. Theories, opinions or actions, documents, recording. Secondary source: created by a person who did not witness the event. Prediction: discussing a future event or something that can be explicitly verified within the “natural course of things”. Inference: a guess based on clues. Conclusion: the end or finish of an event or process. Fact: a piece of information that can be proven. Opinion: a belief or judgement. Biases: prejudices or inclinations. Stereotype: a generalized belief about a group of people. Bibliophile: book lover. Alter: to change. Altar: place of sacrifice. Clichés: trite or overused expressions (When life gives you lemon, make lemonade. Slang: informal language. Synonym: words that mean the same thing. Antonyms: words that mean the opposite of another one. Compound noun: a single noun made up of two or more words used togethers. Example: mothers-in-law. Verb Example: run Adverb example: fast What’s the prefix of? Micro: small Macro: large Neo: new Sub: below, under Inter: between, among Ful: characterized by [Show Less]
- Study guide
- $10.45
- 0
- 933
ATI TEAS 6 - Science (Human Anatomy and Physiology)
ATI TEAS 6 - Science (Human Anatomy and Physiology) Hierarchy of Structures Lowest Hierarchy level is at Organelles within a cell. They obtain ener... [Show More] gy from food and reproduction. -Cells with the same function are collected into larger groups called Tissues. -Tissues are collected into Organs, carry out single task, like oxygenated blood (lungs), or filter out waste (kidneys). -Organs work together in systems that perform coordinated large-scale functions, like nourishing the body (digestive) or protecting the body from attacks (immune). Cell Parts Organelles: Cell parts that function within a cell. They coordinate with other organelles to performs a cell's basic function, like energy processing and waste excretion. ~Examples: Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, The Nucleus. The Nucleus -Nucleus: Small structure that contains Chromosomes and Regulates the DNA of a cell. Defining structure of eukaryotic cells. It is responsible for the passing on of genetic traits between generations. -Contains: nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, a nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin, and ribosomes. Chromosomes Highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA. DNA is genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal. Chromatin Consists of the DNA and Proteins that make up chromosomes. Nucleolus Structure contained within the nucleus, consists of proteins. Small, Round, and does not have a membrane. Involved in protein synthesis, and synthesizes and stores RNA. Nuclear Envelope Encloses the nucleus. Consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids. Nuclear Pores Involved in exchange of material between nucleus and the cytoplasm. Nucleoplasm Liquid within the membrane and is similar to cytoplasm. Cell Membrane "Plasma Membrane" -Made of Lipids and Proteins -Isolates the cell from its external environment while still enabling the cellar to communicate with the outside environment. -Consists: Phospholipid bilayer with the hydrophilic ends of the outer layer facing external environment. ~Cholesterol: Adds stiffness and flexibility ~Glycolipids: Help cell to recognize other cells of the organisms. ~Proteins: Help give cells shape ~Special Proteins: Helps cell communicate with external environment. ~Other Proteins: Transport molecules across membrane Selective Permeability With regard to size, charge, and solubility. -Size: Membrane allows small molecules to diffuse through it. Oxygen and Water molecules are small and can pass through the cells membrane. -Charge: Ions on a cells surface either attracts or repels ions. Ions with like charges are repelled, and ions with opposite charges are attracted to the surface. -Solubility: Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually pass through the membrane. Many are not able to diffuse the membrane, and if anything they'll have to be moved through by active transport and vesicles Cell Structures Inside the cell. Contain: Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Vacuoles, Vesicles, Cytoskeleton, Microtubules, Cytosol, Cytoplasm, Cell Membrane, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria Ribosomes Involved in synthesizing proteins from amino acids. -Make up about a quarter of a cell. -Some are embedded in the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER) Golgi Apparatus Involved in synthesizing materials like proteins that are transported out of the cell. ~Modifies and Packages proteins secreted from the cell. -Located near the nucleus and has layers of membranes. Vacuoles Sacs used for storage, digestion, and waste removal. -Plant: Has one large vacuole -Animal: Has small, sometimes numerous vacuoles. Vesicles Small organelle within a cell, has a membrane. -Functions: Moving materials within a cell. Cytoskeleton Consist of microtubules that help shape and support the cell. Microtubules Part of cytoskeleton. -Help support the cell. -Made of proteins Cytosol Liquid materials in the cell. Mostly water, also contains floating molecules. Cytoplasm Refers to Cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found within the plasma membrane, but not within the nucleus. Cell Membrane Acting as a barrier. Helps keep cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out. -Helps determine what is allowed to exit and enter. Endoplasmic Reticulum Two Types: -Rough ER: Has ribosomes on surface. ~Functions: Manufacture lysosomal enzymes, Manufacture of secreted proteins. (Protein production, protein folding, quality control, and despatch) -Smooth ER: Has no ribosomes. ~Functions: Manufacture Lipids (fat), Metabolism, Steroid Hormone production (adrenal cortex and endocrine glands), Helps liver detox. -Tubular Network that comprises the transport system of a cell. It is fused to the nuclear membrane and extendsthrough cytoplasm to the cell membrane. Mitochondria Vary in terms of size and quantity. Has various functions. -Functions: Production of Cell Energy (ATP) (Main function), Cell Signaling (Communications are carried out), Cell Differentiation (Cell transforms into a cell with more specialized purpose), Cell Cycle and Growth Regulation (Growth and Death, Reproduction). -Inner and Outer membrane: ~Inner: Encloses the matrix. Contains mtDNA and ribosomes. ~Between the 2 Membranes: Cristae (Folds). Chemical reactions occur here that release energy, Control Water Levels in cells, and Recycle and Create Proteins and Fats. -Aerobic Respiration: Occurs in Mitochondria. Animal Cell Structure Contains: Centrosomes, Centriole, Lysosome, Cilia, Flagella Centrosome Pair of centrioles located at right angles to each other and surrounded by protein. -Involved in Mitosis and Cell Cycle Centriole Cylinder-shaped structures near the nucleus. -Involved in Cellular Division -Each cylinder consist of 9 Groups of 3 Microtubules. Occurs in pairs. Lysosome -Functions: Digest proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Also transports undigested substances to the membrane do they can be removed. Shape depends on material being transported. Cilia Appendages extending from the surface of the cell. -Moves the cell and results in fluid being moved by the cell. Flagella Tail-like structures on cell that use whip-likemovements to help move the cell. Longer than Cilia. Only has one or a few flagella. Cell Cycle The process by which a cell reproduces which involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material, and cell division. -Complex organisms: Use the cell cycle to replacecells as they lose their functionality and wear out. -In Animals: Cell Cycle can take 24 hours. -Human Skin Cells: Constantly reproducing. -2 Ways for Cell Reproduction: Mitosis and Meiosis Cell differentiation Determines the different cell types -When less-specialized cell becomes a more-specialized cell. Process is controlled by genes of each cell among a group of cells known as a zygote. -Cell builds certain proteins and other pieces that set it apart as a specific type of cell. ~Example: Gastrulation (early phase in embryonic development in animals) Mitosis Events that occur: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis. Interphase Cell prepares for division by replicating its genetic and cytoplasmic material. -Further divided into G1, S, G2 (Meiosis) Prophase -Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. -Pairs of Centrioles move to opposite sides and spindle fibers begins to form. -Mitotic Spindle moves chromosomes around wishing the cell. Metaphase Spindle moves to the center of the cell and chromosome pairs align along the center of the spindle structure. Anaphase Pair of chromosomes, sisters, begin to pull apart and may bend. When they separate, they are called daughters. Grooves then appear in cell membrane. Telophase Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membranes reform, and the chromosome revert to chromatin. -Animals Cells: Membrane is pinched -Plant Cells: New cell wall begins to form Cytokinesis Physical splitting of the cell into two cells - Some believe it occurs following telophase, others say it occurs from anaphase, as the cell begins to furrow, through telophase, when cell actually splits into two. Meiosis Same phased as Mitosis, except it happens twice and differentevent occur during some phases. -First Phase: Interphase(1), Prophase(1), Metaphase(1), Anaphase(1), Telophase(1), and Cytokinesis(1) -Second Phase: Prophase(2), Metaphase(2), Anaphase(2), Telophase(2), and Cytokinesis(2). Interphase(1) Divided into 3 Parts: -G1 Phase: Cell synthesizes proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1, each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA. -S Phase: The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical sister chromatids attached at a centromere. -G2 Phase: DNA Replication Prophase(1) Longest Phase -Chromosomes cross over, Genetic material is exchanged, and te trades of four chromatids are formed. Nuclear membrane dissolves/breaks down. Metaphase(1) Pair of homologous chromosomes move along the metaphase plate. Anaphase(1) Microtubules shorten, and homologous pairs of chromatids are separated and travel to different poles. Telophase(1) and Cytokinesis(1) Pairs arrives at poles and cell is pinched apart, separating into two cells. Prophase(2) Disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear envelope again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids. Centrosomes move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division. Metaphase (2) Centromeres contain two kinetochores (pulls the chromosomes to the poles) that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles. Anaphase (2) Remaining centromeric cohesion is cleaved allowing the sister chromatids to segregate. The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles. Telophase (2) and Cytokinesis(2) Marked by decompensation and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disassembly of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes reform and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes. Tissues Groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function -Grouped into 4 broad categories: Muscle (Body Movement), Nerve (Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves), Epithelial (Layers of Skin/Membranes), and Connective Tissue (Bone tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, and Lymph). ~Includes: Epithelial, Connecting, Cartilage, Blood, Bone, Muscle, and Nervous. Epithelial Tissue Cells are joined together tightly -Example: Skin Tissue Connective Tissue May be dense, loose, or fatty. -It protects and binds body parts. Cartilage Tissue Cushions and provides structural support for body parts. - Jelly-Like base and is fibrous Blood Transports Oxygen to cells and Removes wastes. -Carries hormones and Defends against disease. Bone Tissue Hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues and organs. -Marrow produces RBC -Connective Tissue Muscle Tissue Helps support and move the body. -3 Types: ~Smooth: Provides tension in the blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis. ~Cardiac: Only found in the heart ~Skeletal: Includes the muscles commonly called biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps. Nervous Tissue Neurons form a network through the body that control responses to change in the external and internal environment. Some send signals to muscles and glands to trigger responses. -Located in brain, spinal cord, and nerves 3 Primary Body Planes -Transverse Plane (Horizontal): Divides the patient's body into upper and lower halves. -Sagittal Plane (Vertical): Divides the body, or any body part, into right and left sections. Runs parallel to the midline of the body. -Coronal Plane (Vertical/Frontal): Divides the body, or any body part, into front and back. Runs through the body at right angles. Terms of Direction -Medial: Towards the mid-line, Middle, Away from the side. ~Example: The little finger it medial to the thumb. -Lateral: Toward the side, Away from the mid-line. ~Example: Anatomical position, Thumb is lateral to little finger. -Proximal: Structures closer to the center of the body. ~Example: Hip is proximal to the knee. -Distal: Structures further away from center of the body. ~Example: Knee is distal to the hip. -Anterior: Structures in front. -Posterior: Structures behind. -Cephalad/Cephalic: Adverbs meaning towards the head. ~Example: Cranial is the adjective, meaning The Skull. -Caudad: Adverb meaning towards the tail/posterior. ~Example: Caudal is the adjective, meaning The Hindquarters. -Superior: Above, or closer to the head. -Inferior: Below, or closer to the feet. Organs Group of tissues that work together to perform specific functions. Organ Systems Group of organs that work together to perform specific functions. -Includes: Respiratory, Cardiovascular, Gastrointestinal, Nervous, Muscular, Integumentary, Reproductive, Endocrine, Renal/Urinary, Immune, and Skeletal. Respiratory System Structures Upper: nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx larynx Lower: trachea, lungs, and bronchial tree (bronchi, bronchial network) Airway - Lined with cilia to remove microbes and debris -Lungs: Bronchial Tree -> lungs -> terminate into alveoli (air sacs) -> gas exchange with blood capillaries Walls of Alveoli allow for the exchange of gases* with the blood capillaries that surround them. Right lung - 3 Lobes Left lung - 2 Lobes -Surrounded by Pleural Membrane (reduce friction) -Muscles: Diaphragm: separates thoracic/abdominal cavities Intercostal: between ribs Respiratory Functions -Supplies body with oxygen and Removes carbon dioxide (occurs in alveoli) -Filters Air: passes through nasal passages -> lungs -Speech: Air -> throat -> through larynx, causing vibrations and producing sound before heading to trachea -Cough: Particles -> nasal passages/airways -> expelled from body -Smell: Chemoreceptors (nasal cavity) respond to airborne chemicals Hyperventilation Increase blood pH during Acidosis (low pH) Slow breathing during Alkalosis (high pH) -Lowers blood pH Breathing Process -Diaphragm/Intercostal muscles contracts to expand lungs -Inspiration (Inhalation): Diaphragm contracts and moves down increasing the chest cavity -Expiration (exhalation): Intercostal muscles contractand ribs expand, increasing size of chest cavity ~Volume of chest cavity increases, then the pressure inside chest cavity decreases ~When relaxed: Size of cavity decreases forcing air out. -Controlled by Medulla Oblongata ~Monitors carbon dioxide in blood, signals the breathing rate to increase when levels are too high. Respiratory Problems High Altitude: Decrease lung function due to low oxygen levels. *People who live in high altitude, evolve over time to have larger lungs. Chemicals, Pollen, Smoke: Damaged cilia causing Emphysema, Allergies, or Inflammation. Pathogens: Influenza (corona virus), Tuberculosis (mycobacterium), and Pneumonia (walking - mycoplasma infection) *Mycosis -> Fungus Cystic Fibrosis (gene mutation), Asthma, Lung Surfactant Insufficiency: Impedes lung action. Ventilation Process of aerating the lungs Respiratory Directions Air -> Trachea -> Bronchi -> Lungs -> Alveoli Alveoli -Aqueous Surfactant: The median for gas exchange and keeps lungs from collapsing on itself due to surface tension Pathway of Oxygen/Carbon Dioxide in Lungs How Respiratory System effects Circulatory System -Lungs are perfumed by blood vessels from the heart to bring deoxygenated blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs, where oxygen is added and carbon dioxide is removed to return oxygenated blood to the heart for circulation to the rest of the of the body -Diffusion: Passive transport mechanism. Rate of Diffusion is directly proportional to the surface area involved and the concentration gradient, and is inversely proportional to the distance between the two. solutions. -Oxygen in the lungs moves into the blood, and carbon dioxide in the blood moves to the lungs. Lungs then exhale carbon dioxide back out of body. Tidal Volume Amount of air breathed in and out of lungs Residual Capacity -Small amount of stale air. -Remains trapped in alveoli after expiration and mixes with the fresh air brought in by inspiration. Circulatory System Internal transport of substances to and from the cells. -3 Parts: Blood, Blood Vessels, and Heart. -Open or Closed. Blood Human has 5 quarts of blood. Plasma: Half blood volume. Mostly water, serves as solvent. -Contains: plasma proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones, and dissolved gases. RBC (red): Transports oxygen to cells. Form in bone marrow. Live for 2 Months, constantly replaced. WBC (white): Defends body against infection and removes waste. ~Lymphocytes, neutrophil, monocytes, eosinophil, and basophil. Platelets: Fragments of stem cells. ~Function: Blood Clotting Heart Chambers 4 Chambers: 2 Ventricles, 2 Atriums -Halves separated by AV Valve (located between ventricle and artery leading away from the heart). Types of Circulation Coronary: Flow of blood to the heart tissue. Blood enters the coronary arteries, which branch off the aorta, supplying major arteries, which enter the heart with oxygenated blood. Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium through the cardiac veins which empty into the coronary sinus. Pulmonary: Flow of blood between the heart and the lungs. Deoxygenated blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs through pulmonary arteries. Oxygenated blood flows back to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Systemic: Flow of blood to the entire body with the exception of coronary and pulmonary. Blood exits the left ventricle through the aorta, which branches into the carotid arteries, subclavian arteries, common iliac arteries, and the renal artery. Blood returns to the heart through the jugular veins, subclavian veins, common iliac veins, and renal veins, which empty into the superior and inferior vena cavae. -Portal circulation: Included in Systemic. Flow of blood from the digestive system to the liver and then to the heart and renal circulation, which is the flow of blood between the heart and kidneys. Blood Pressure Fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle. Arterial: Functions by transporting oxygen-poor blood into the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the body tissues. -Arteries branch into smaller arterioles which contract and expand based on signals from the body. -Arterioles are where adjustments are made in blood delivery to specific areas based on complex communication from body systems. Capillary Beds: Diffusion sites for exchanges between blood and interstitial fluid. Capillary: Has thinnest wall of any vein, consisting of single cell endothelial cells. Merge into venues which in turn merge with larger diameter tubules called veins. -Veins transport blood from body tissues back to the hearts. Thin and contain smooth muscle and function as blood volume reserves. -Valves inside the veins facilitate this transport. Lymphatic System -Function: To return excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream. -Consists of transport vessels and lymphoid organs. Lymph Vascular System: Consists of lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph ducts. -Function: Return excess fluid to blood, Return of protein from capillaries, Transport of fats from the digestive tract, Disposal of debris and cellular waste. Lymphoid Organs -Consist of lymph nodes, spleen, appendix, adenoids, thymus, tonsils, and small patches of tissue in the small intestines. Lymph Nodes: Located at intervals through the lymph vessel system. Contains lymphocytes and plasma cells. Spleen: Filters blood, stores of RBC and macrophages. Thymus: Secrets hormones. Major site of lymphocyte maturation. Spleen -Upper left of the abdomen, behind the stomach and below diaphragm. -Lymphoid tissue -Blood vessels are connected to the spleen by splenic sinuses. -Function: Filter unwanted materials from the blood (including old RBC) and to help fight infections. -Up to 10% of the population has one or more accessory spleens that tend to form at the hilum of the original spleen. Peritoneal Ligaments that Support the Spleen -Gastrolienal: Connects the stomach to the spleen -Lienorenal: Connects the kidney to the spleen -Middle Section of the Phenicol ligament: Connects the left colic flex use to the thoracic diaphragm Heart Functions -Atrial Contraction: Fills ventricles and then ventricular contractions empty them, forcing circulation "cardiac cycle" -Cardiac Muscles attach to each other and signals for contraction spreading rapidly. -Complex Electrical System: Controls the heartbeat -Cardiac Muscle Cells: Produce and conduct electrical signals. Capillaries Drain interstitial fluid that fills the spaces between cells -Filters it through a system of lymph nodes that are enriched in lymphocytes and provide surveillance by immune system. Lymph -Essentially plasma with RBCs removed [Show Less]
- Study guide
- $10.45
- 0
- 502
ATI TEAS 6 EXAM Science Study Guide (Anatomy and Physiology).
ATI TEAS 6 EXAM Science Study Guide (Anatomy and Physiology). Science Cell Cell: basic organizational unit of all living things. One thing i... [Show More] n common is they all have membranes (phospholipids). Cell structure organization: All cells contain DNA, and RNA & can synthesize proteins. Consists of nucleic acids, cytoplasm, and cell membrane. o Tissues: Cells that are grouped together o Organs: Tissues that are grouped together o Systems: Organs that are grouped together o Organism: A complete individual Nuclear parts of a cell o Nucleus: contains chromosomes, & regulates DNA of the cell. Defining structure of eukaryotic cells (they all have nucleus). Passes genetic traits between generations. Contains nuclear envelop, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin, & ribosomes. o Chromosomes: thread like rods of DNA. Short deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA is the genetic material that stores information about the plant/animal. o Chromatin: DNA & Protein makeup chromosomes o Nucleolus: Proteins, small/round doesn’t have membrane. Protein synthesis, synthesizes & stores RNA. o Nuclear envelope: Encloses structures within nucleus. Made of lipids. o Nuclear pores: Exchange materials between the nucleus * cytoplasm o Nucleoplasm: Liquid like cytoplasm, within nucleus. Cell Membranes Cell Membrane (Plasma membrane): Semipermeable membrane of lipids and proteins. Made of phospholipid bilayer, hydrophilic ends of the outer layer facing the external environment, the inner layer facing inside the cell, hydrophobic ends facing each other. o Hydrophilic: Water loving, can dissolve water o Hydrophobic: Hates water, can’t dissolve water Selective Permeability o Selective Permeability with regards to size, charge, and solubility. Cell structure o Ribosomes: synthesize proteins from amino acids. o Golgi apparatus: synthesize materials like proteins that are transported out of the cell. Near nucleus & consists of layers of membranes. o Vacuoles: Sacs used for storage, digestion, and waste removal. One large in plant cells/ Animal cells are small or have numerous. o Vesicle: Has membrane, & can move materials within the cell. o Cytoskeleton: Microtubules that shape and support the cell. o Microtubules: Part of cytoskeleton & help support cell. Made of protein. o Cytosol: Liquid material within the cell. Mostly water & had floating materials. o Cytoplasm: Cytosol & organelles found within the plasma membrane, not within nucleus! o Cell membrane: Barrier that keeps materials out of cell. Determines what’s allowed in and out. o Rough Endoplasmic reticulum: Ribosomes on the surface, produce & store proteins o Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum: Helps store lipids & proteins. o Mitochondrion: Generate ATP, involved in cell growth & death. Contain their own DNA aside from the one within the nucleus. Functions: Produce energy, cell signaling, cellular differentiation, cell cycle & growth regulation. Can also have aerobic respiration. Animal Cell Structure o Centrosome: Mitosis & the cell cycle occur here o Centriole: Cellular division o Lysosome: Digests proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Help remove undigested substances. o Cilia: Appendages that cause a cell to move & can move fluid o Flagella: Tail like structures that help the cell move. A cell usually only has one or a few flagella. Longer than cilia. Cell Cycle: Cell reproduces, growth cell, duplication of genetic material, and cell division. Cell Differentiation: Helps determine the cell type for each cell, process is controlled by genes of each cell (zygote). Following the directions of the genes, a cell builds certain proteins and other substances to set it apart as a specific type of cell. Mitosis: DNA replication & Production of new cells IPMAT=Cytokinesis o Interphase: Cell prepares to divide by replicating genetic & cytoplasmic material. (G1, S, G2) o Prophase: Chromatic thickens & nuclear membrane disintegrates. Centrioles move to opposite sides of the cells, and spindle fibers form. Mitotic spindle, formed cytoskeleton parts, moves chromosomes around the cell. o Metaphase: Spindle moves to the center of the cell. Chromosomes align in the center. o Anaphase: Sister chromosomes begin to pull apart. When separated they’re called daughter chromosomes. Grooves appear in the cell. Cell begins to furrow. o Telophase: Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reform, and chromosomes turn into chromatin. In animal cells membrane is pinched, in plant cell a new cell wall begins to form. Splits into two. o Cytokinesis: Physical splitting of the cell. Meiosis: Reproduction of gametes zygote o Prophase I: Parent cell's nuclear membrane begins to disappear, spindles form o Metaphase I: Chromosomes line up with homogonous chromosomes. Crossing over may occur o Anaphase I: Homogonous chromosomes are separated, so one of each goes to either side o Telophase I: Cell separates, cytokinesis occurs o Prophase II: Almost simultaneous with Telaphase I; new spindles form and attach to centromeres o Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up again, and some crossing over may occur o Anaphase II: Sister chromatids pulled apart at centromeres, towards poles o Telophase II: Cell separates, nuclear membranes form, cytokinesis occurs o Interphase: Diploid sex cells have double the normal chromosomes necessary Tissues Categories of Tissues o Epithelial: Cells are tightly joined. Ex. Skin o Connective: May be dense, loose, or fatty. Protects and binds body parts. Ex. Bone tissue, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fat, blood, and lymph. o Cartilage: Cushions & provides structural support for body parts. Jelly like base and fibrous. o Blood: Blood transports oxygen to cells and removes wastes. Carries hormones and defends against diseases. o Bone: Hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues & organs. Marrow produces red blood cells. o Muscle: Helps support and move the body. 1. Smooth Cardiac Skeletal o Nervous: Located inside the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons form network through the body that control responses to changes in the external and internal environment. Some send signals to muscles and glands to trigger responses. Organs Mammals 11 organ systems 1) Integumentary system 2) Respiratory system 3) Cardiovascular system 4) Endocrine system 5) Nervous system 6) Immune system 7) Digestive system 8) Excretory system 9) Muscular system 10) Skeletal system 11)Reproductive system Three Primary Body Planes o Transverse (horizontal): Superior and inferior o Sagittal plane: Right and left sections. o Coronal (frontal): Front & Back {anterior & posterior} Terms of direction o Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of o Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of o Proximal: closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk o Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk o Anterior: toward or at the front of the body; in front of o Posterior: Toward or at the back of the body; behind o Cephalad=Head, Cranial=skull o Caudad=towards the tail or posterior o Superior: toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above o Inferior: away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below Respiratory System Upper respiratory system: Nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx and larynx. Lower respiratory system: Trachea, lungs, and bronchial tree Airway: nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx (throat, larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi, and bronchial network. o Lined with cilia, which brings debris toward the mouth o Lungs: Bronchi, Bronchial network, alveoli Alveoli: one cell thick, allow gas exchange with blood capillaries. Right lung has three lobes Left lung has two lobes, leaving room for heart. Lungs are surrounded by pleural membrane, reduces friction between surfaces when breathing. Breathing includes diaphragm & intercostal muscles. • Diaphragm: dome-shaped muscle that separate the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Functions of the Respiratory System o Function: Supply oxygen and rid the body carbon dioxide. Exchange of gases occurs in alveoli, surrounded by blood capillaries. o Filters air. Air si warmed, moistened, and filtered as it passes through the nasal cavity. o Responsible for speech, air passes through larynx (vibrates &produces sound) before entering trachea (windpipe). o Vital in cough production, expels foreign from body. o Chemoreceptors smell airborne particles in nasal cavity. o Helps body maintain acid-base homeostasis. Hyperventilation increases blood pH during acidosis (low pH), slowing breathing during alkalosis (high pH) helps lower blood pH. Breathing process o Breathing process: Diaphragm & intercostal muscles contract to expand lungs. o Inhaling: Diaphragm contracts & moves down, increasing the size of the chest cavity. o Exhaling: Intercostal muscles contract & ribs expand, increasing size & volume in the chest cavity. Pressure inside the chest cavity decreases. o Diaphragm & intercostal muscles relax, size of the chest cavity decreases, forcing air out of the lungs. o Medulla oblongata: controls breathing process Medulla monitors level of carbon dioxide in blood, & signals breathing rate to increase when levels are too high. Cardiovascular System Responsible for the internal transport of substances to and from cells. o Made up of the following Blood: Blood is composed of water, solutes, and other elements in a fluid connective tissue. Blood Vessels: Tubules of different size that transport blood. Heart: Muscular pump providing the pressure necessary to keep blood flow. o Circulatory systems can be open or close. o Supplementary & Lymph clean up excess fluids & proteins & returns them to the circulatory system. o Blood: Stabilizes pH, carries raw materials & removes waste products from cells. Can fight infections. Composed of red & white blood cells, platelets & plasma. • Plasma composed of plasma proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones, & dissolved gases. o Red blood cells form in bone marrow, and transport oxygen to cells. o White blood cells defend the body against infection and remove various wastes. White blood cells include lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, & basophils. Platelets are fragments of the stem cell & function in blood clotting. Heart o Made of cardiac muscle tissue. o Four chambers two atriums & two ventricles Halves separated by AV valves • Located between arteries & ventricles leading away from the heart. • Valves move blood in one direction, preventing it from backing into the chambers. • Heart functions by contracting & relaxing • Cardiac Cycle: Atrial contraction fills the ventricle & ventricular contraction empties them, forcing circulation. Systole (contracting ventricles)/ Diastole (relaxing ventricles) Types of circulation Coronary circulation: Flow of blood to the heart tissue. o Coronary arteries: Delivers oxygen-rich blood to myocardium o Cardiac veins: Vessels that remove deoxygenated blood from heart muscle. Pulmonary circulation: Flow of blood between the heart & lungs o Carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle of heart to lungs, & returns oxygenated blood to left atrium & ventricle of the heart. Systemic circulation: o Carries oxygenated blood away from heart to the body, & returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Blood Pressure The pressure of blood against the arterial walls. Lymphatic System Function: The lymphatic system is to return excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream. o System consists of transport vessels & lymph organs o Lymph vascular system consist of: Lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, & lymph ducts. o Major functions of the lymph vascular systems The return of excess fluid to the blood. The return of protein from the capillaries. The transport of fats from the digestive tract. The disposal of debris & cellular waste. o Lymphoid organs: Lymph nodes, spleen, appendix, adenoids, thymus, tonsils, & small patches of tissue in the small intestine. Spleen o Ly mp h no de: loc ate d at int erv als thr ou gh out the ly mp h ves sel sys te m. Nodes contain lymphocytes & plasma cells. Spleen filters blood stores of red blood cells & macrophage. Thymus secrets hormones & major site of lymphocyte production. Located in the upper left of the abdomen, & behind the stomach/ below the diaphragm. o Made of lymphoid tissue. o Blood vessels are connected to spleen by splenic sinuses. Gastrolienal ligament that connects the stomach to the spleen. Lienorenal ligament that connects the kidney to the spleen Middle section of phrenicocolic ligament o Function of the spleen is to filter unwanted materials from the blood, including red blood cells. They help fight infections. Gastrointestinal System Digestive systems function by o Movement: Mixes & passes nutrients through the system & eliminates waste. o Secretion: Enzymes, hormones, & other substances necessary for digestion are secreted into the digestive tract. o Digestive: Includes chemical breakdown of nutrients into smaller units that enter the internal environment. o Absorption: Passage of nutrients through plasma membranes into the blood or lymph & then to the body. Mouth and Stomach Digestion begins in the mouth (chewing & mixing of nutrient with saliva) o Salivary glands are stimulated & secrete saliva (amylase) o This initiates breakdown of starch in digestion. o Swallowed the food moves down the pharynx into esophagus to the stomach. Stomach is a flexible, muscular sac. Three main function include 1) Mixing and storing food 2) Dissolving & degrading food via secretions 3) Controlling passage of food into the small intestine o Protein digestion begins in the stomach. The smooth muscle (peristalsis) then moves the food into small intestine, absorption begins. Liver o Largest solid organ & gland. Has 4 lobes. Blood flows through sinusoids. o Functions include: Production of bile. Production of certain blood plasma proteins. Production of cholesterol. Storage of excess glucose in the form of glycogen Regulation of amino acids Processing of hemoglobin (to store iron) Conversion of ammonia to urea Purification of blood Regulation of blood clotting Controlling infections by boosting immune factors & removing bacteria. Small intestine o Most nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. o Enzymes from the pancreas, liver, & stomach are transported to the small intestine to aid digestion. Enzymes act on fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, & proteins. o Bile is secreted by the liver, and can break down fats. It’s stored in the gallbladder between meals. o Small intestine is covered in villi (absorb & increase surface area for interaction with chime.) Microvilli increases main absorption Large intestine o Concentrates, mixes, and stores waste material. o Absorbs water Pancreas o Made up of endocrine and exocrine tissues. o Exocrine- secretes digestive enzymes from pancreatic duct Pancreatic duct connects to the common bile duct near the duodenum. Endocrine tissue secrets hormones (insulin) into blood. Blood is supplied from splenic artery, gastroduodenal artery, & superior mesenteric artery. • Roles of Pancreas o Assists in digestion of foods by secreting enzymes, especially fats & proteins. o Precursors of enzymes (zymogens), converted to amylase & pancreatic lipase. o Secretes sodium bicarbonate to neutral stomach acid. o Exocrine functions of pancreas are controlled by hormones secreted by the stomach & duodenum. o Exocrine secretions of pancreas flow into pancreatic duct & are delivered to duodenum through pancreatic duct. Nervous System o Human nervous system senses, interprets, & issues commands o Action potential: messages sent across the plasma membrane of neurons. Messages occur when a neuron is stimulated past a necessary threshold. Stimulations occur in a sequence from one stimulation point of one neuron to its contact with another neuron. Chemical synapse: A substance released that inhibits the action of the adjoining cell. o Functional Types of Neurons Three general function of neurons are • sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. • Sensory neurons: Transmit signals to the central nervous system (CNS) from the sensor receptors associated with touch, pain, temperature, hearing, sight, smell, & taste. • Motor neuron: Transmits signals from the CNS to the rest of the body such as signaling muscles or glands to respond. • Interneurons: Transmit signals between neurons Neurons consist of three basic parts: • Cell body: Contains the nucleus of the of the neuron. • Axon: Transmits impulses away from cell body. It’s insulated with oligodendrocytes & myelin sheaths with gaps (nodes of Ranvier). Axon terminates at the synapse. • Dendrites: Receive impulses from sensory receptors or interneurons & transmit them toward the cell body. Central Nervous System Spinal cord: Protects & supports the vertebrae. Brain: Consists of hindbrain, medulla oblongata, cerebellum, & pons. o Forebrain: cerebrum, thalamus, & hypothalamus. Frontal lobe: Short term & working memory, information processing, decision making, planning, & judgment. Parietal lobe: sensory input, touch, pain, pressure Occipital lobe: Visual input/output & processing. Temporal lobe: Auditory input, processing, & output. o Cerebellum: Processes & stores implicit memories. o Midbrain: Visual & hearing o Pons: helps control breathing o Medulla oblongata: Control of consciousness and arousal; regulates breathing, cardiac functions and blood vessels diameters o Peripheral nervous system: These nerves carry information to and from the central nervous system to provide complex body functions. o Autonomic nervous system (Hypothalamus controls this): Maintains homeostasis, controls functions of the internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissue & glands. Regulates heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature, & blood pH. • Sympathetic nervous system: Controls body’s reaction to extreme, stressful, & emergency situations. “Fight or Flight” • Parasympathetic nervous system: Controls body’s homeostasis. Relaxes & inhibits high energy functions. Somatic Nervous System & Reflex Arc o Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary movement of muscles & organs, reflex movement. Voluntary movement, sensory neurons carry impulses to brain & spinal cord. Muscular System Effer ent (mot or): Bring s signal s from centra l nervo us syste m to senso ry organ s & muscl es. Afferent (sensory): Brings signals from sensory organs & muscles to central nervous system. Three properties of muscles: o Excitability: Electric gradient can reverse when stimulated. o Contraction: Ability to contract, or shorten. o Elongate: Share the capacity to elongate, or relax. Three types of muscle tissue: Skeletal, Cardiac, & Smooth o Skeletal muscle tissue: Composed of muscle fibers (striated muscle), Voluntary (only one that can move body). o Smooth muscle tissue: Involuntary (found in internal organs), Short/wider & nonstriated. o Cardiac muscle tissue: Involuntary muscle found only in heart. Striated Skeletal muscle contraction Made of muscle fibers: when muscle contract sarcomere contract Myofibrils: Thick filaments & Thin filaments. o Thick filament: Composed of protein myosin. o Thin filament: Composed of protein actin. Dark band: thick & thin overlapping. Light band: thin filaments overlapping. Sliding filament theory o Myosin heads hydrolyzed ATP and become reoriented and energized o Myosin heads bind to actin, forming cross bridges o Myosin cross bridges rotate toward center of the sarcomeres (power stroke) o As myosin heads bind ATP, cross bridges detach from actin Reproductive system Male Reproductive System o Function: Produce, maintain, & transfer sperm & secrete male hormone. o External structure: Penis, scrotum, & testes o Scrotum: temperature for spermatogenesis o Testes: Male gonads, produce sperm & testosterone. o Epididymis: Produces sperm & testosterone o Seminal vesicle: Secretes alkaline fluids with proteins & mucus o Prostate gland: Secretes milky white fluid with proteins & enzymes. o Bulbourethral gland: Secretes fluid that neutralizes the acidity of the urethra. o Follicle stimulating hormone: Stimulates spermatogenesis o Luteinizing hormone: Stimulates testosterone production Female Reproductive System o Function: Produce ova (egg cells), transfer ova to the fallopian tubes for fertilization, receive the sperm. Provide a protective, nourishing, environment for developing embryo. o External structure: labia major, labia minor, Bartholin’s glands & clitoris. o Bartholin’s gland: Secretes lubricating fluid o Ovaries: Produce ova, secrete estrogen & progesterone o Fallopian tubes: Carry the mature egg towards the uterus. Typically, fertilization occurs here. o Fertilized egg travel to uterus, implants in the uterine wall. o Uterus: Protects & nourishes the developing embryo until birth Integumentary System Consists of the skin: Sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, nails. Function: Protection, Secretion, & communication. o Protects against bacteria, viruses, & various chemicals from entering the body. o Sweat glands help rid the body of metabolic wastes. o Sensory receptors: send information to the brain regarding pain, touch, pressure, & temperature. Protection, secretion, & communication. Skin manufactures vitamin D & absorbs certain chemicals (meds). Layers of skin o The stratum basale or stratum germinativum is always the bottom (deepest) layer. Continuous cell division occurs here and produces all the other layers. o The stratum spinosum is a layer of 8–10 keratinocytes o The non-dividing cells of the 3rd layer (stratum granulosum) are filled with granules of keratin. o The stratum lucidum is the 4th layer but is only present in thick skin (the skin of the fingertips, palms, and soles). o The stratum corneum is always outermost, composed of approximately 20 layers of flat cell- remnants that are like “bags of turtle wax” (dead keratinocytes with no cellular organelles filled with only keratin protein.) Skin’s involvement in temperature homeostasis Sweat glands to cool off body. Vasodilation of blood vessels. Shivering heats the body. Sebaceous & sweat glands are exocrine. Secret through ducts. Sebaceous are holocrine glands, and secrete sebum. o Inhibits water loss from the skin, protects against bacterial & fungal infections. Sweat glands are either eccrine or apocrine glands. Apocrine are located in the armpits, groin, palms, & soles of the feet. Endocrine system Adrenal cortex: Monitors blood sugar levels; helps in lipid & protein metabolism. Adrenal medulla: Controls cardiac function; raises blood sugar & controls the size of blood vessels. Thyroid gland: Helps regulate metabolism & functions in growth & development. Parathyroid: Regulates calcium levels in the blood. Pancreas islets: Raises & lowers blood sugar; active in carbohydrate metabolism. Thymus gland: Plays a role in immune responses. Pineal gland: Has an influence on daily biorhythms & sexual active maity. Pituitary gland: Plays an important role in growth & development. Endocrine functions of the Pancreas Pancreas: Produces insulin & glucagon Insulin lowers glucose Insulin affects fat metabolism, & can change livers ability to store fat. Thyroid & Parathyroid glands Thyroid & parathyroid are located below larynx Thyroid gland: regulates metabolism & secretes hormones Urinary System Consists of kidneys, urinary ducts, & bladder. Kidneys: bean-shaped structures located at the back of abdominal cavity o Has three layers: Renal cortex, renal medulla, & renal pelvis. o Kidney receives blood from renal arteries. o Kidneys filter the blood, reabsorb needed materials, secrete wastes & excess water in urine. o Blood flows from the renal arteries into arterioles into the glomerulus where its filtered. Glomerular filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule where water, glucose, ions, & other organic molecules are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. o Urea & drugs are removed from the blood in the distal convoluted tubule. o pH of the blood can be adjusted in distal convoluted tubule by secretion of hydrogen ions. o Unabsorbed materials flow out of collecting tubule URINE is drained from the kidneys through the ureters to urinary bladder. Expelled through urethra. Immune System Protects body against invading pathogens including bacteria, viruses, fungi, & protists. o Immune system includes: lymphatic system (lymph, lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, & lymph nodes) o Lymph nodes are located in the neck, armpits, & groin area. o Thymus is a maturation chamber for immature T-cells that are formed in bone marrow. o Spleen cleans the blood of dead cells, & pathogens. The body’s general immune defenses include o Skin: Intact epidermis & dermis form a form a formidable barrier against bacteria, o Ciliated mucous membranes: Cilia sweep pathogens out of the respiratory tract. o Glandular Secretions: Secretions from exocrine glands destroy bacteria. o Gastric secretions: Gastric acid destroys pathogens. o Normal Bacterial populations: compete with pathogens in the gut & vag. o Phagocytes & inflammation reponses mobilize white blood cells & chemical reactions to stop infection. Three types of whte blood cells o Macrophage: Phagocytes that alert T cells to presence of foreign substances. o T lymphocytes: These directly attack cells infected by viruses & bacteria o B lymphocytes: These cells target specific bacteria for destruction. Types of leukocytes o Leukocytes are produced in red bone marrow. Leukocytes are macrophages. (engulf & destroy pathogens). Granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils & eosinophils) • (Neutrophil: respond quickly to invaders) • (Basophil: alert body of invasion) • Eosinophils: large, long-living phagocytes that defend against multicellular invaders. T lymphocytes (help the body fight infections by producing antibodies & other chemicals.) B lymphocytes (natural killers) (Produce antibodies) Antigen & Typical Immune Response o Antigen: proteins on the surfaces of bacteria, viruses, & fungi Drugs, Toxins, & foreign particles o Plasma cells: produce antibodies specific to that pathogens o Antibodies bind to antigens on the surface of pathogens & mark them for destruction by other phagocytes. o Memory cells remain in the blood stream to protect against future infections. Active & Passive immunity Adaptive immunity: reacts to pathogens that have encounter infection or has an immunization. Adaptive & passive immunity can come naturally or artificially Naturally acquired passive immunity is natural, happens during pregnancy -> passes it to the baby. Artificially acquired passive immunity: immunization acquired Skeletal System Over 200 bones in human body Axial skeleton: Skull, sternum, ribs, & vertebral column o Skull: Cranium, Face o Hyoid, Auditory ossicles o Vertebral column o Thorax o Sternum Ribs Appendicular skeleton: Arms, legs, hips & shoulders • Appendicular Skeleton: o Shoulder girdle: Clavicle & Scapula Upper limbs: Humerus, Radius, Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalanges o Pelvic Girdle: Hip, Pelvic, or Coxal bone o Lower Limbs: Femur, Patella, Fibula, Tibia, Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges o Flat bones: There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and pubis). o Long bones: Tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, phalanges, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges o Short bones: Tarsals, carpals, o Irregular bones: Vertebrae, sacrum o Sesamoid bones: Patella. Skeletal system function o Movement, mineral storage, support, protection, & blood cell formation (RBC’s produced in bone marrow). Life and physical sciences Macromolecules 4 basic organic macromolecules: carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids, proteins, & lipids. 4 basic building blocks: monosaccharides (glucose), amino acids, fatty acids (glycerol), nucleotides. Carbohydrates Primary source of energy & responsible for providing energy Simple sugars: Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, & sucrose), & disaccharides. Lipids Lipids are hydrophobic Function: energy storage, & structural function Phospholipids are lipids that have phosphate group Glycerides are formed from fatty acids Proteins Proteins are macromolecules from amino acids o Peptides result of condensation reactions o A peptide is a compound of two or more amino acids. o [Show Less]
- Exam
- $10.45
- 0
- 469
ATI TEAS 6 English Language Study Guide.
ATI TEAS 6 English Language Study Guide. ENGLISH & LANGUAGE Section: V-Verb S-Subject HV-Helping Verb MV-Main Verb VP-Verb Phrase SV-Singular Ver... [Show More] b PV-Plural Verb LV- Linking Verb CLAUSE- A group of related words that do have a Subject & a Verb EXAMPLE of Clauses: The ball flew over the fence. S V Wanda ran home and played in the yard. S V Although I jumped over the hurdles……. S V PHRASE- Lack a subject & predicate (verb) VERB PHRASES- A group of words working together to create the verb. Consist of a helping verb(s) and a main verb. [Helping Verb(s) + Main Verb]= Verb Phrase ***helping verb “helps” the main verb to complete a verb phrase*** Common helping verbs “To be” “to do” “to have” modals Am, are, is do have could, would, Was, were does has should may, might, must Be, been did had can, will, shall VP EXAMPLE: Dana [was sleeping] on the couch. HV MV VP Dana [might have been sleeping] on the couch. HV HV HV MV A VERB PHRASE CAN BE INTERRUPTED BY AN ADVERB. EXAMPLE: Arnav was preparing for his test. Arnav was not preparing for his test. Arnav was eagerly preparing for his test. Arnav was not eagerly preparing for his test. ADVERB- Modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. LINKING VERBS-Linking verbs connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject (or state of being). A linking verb is a verb that links (connects) the subject of the sentence to information about that subject. Linking verbs include the verbs: be, become, and seem. Examples: He is a minister. She seems very nice. The night became darker. EXAMPLE: Jermaine was washing his car. S LV V Fahim may have arrived this morning. S LV LV V Rachel could have been practicing in the backyard. S LV LV LV V Present Tense Past Tense I am we are I was we were You are you (y’all) are you (y’all) were you (y’all) were He is, she is, it is they are he was, she was, it was were VERB- Action in a sentence or state-of-being. COMPOUND PREDICATES/ VERBS- 2 or more Predicates (verbs) in a sentence EXAMPLE: Tyler read and studied. Tyler read, studied and slept. -A Note on Three Problem Verbs- Three common irregular verbs that confuse many writers are be, do, and have. Here are the correct present tense and past tense forms of these three verbs. Present Tense Past Tense Be I am we are I was we were You are you are you were you were He, she, it is they are he, she, it was they were Do I do we do I did we did You do He, she, it does you do they do you did you did he, she, it did they did Have I have we have I had we had You have you have you had you had He, she, it has they have he, she, it had they had SIMPLE & COMPLETE SUBJECTS & PREDICATES/ VERBS: SIMPLE SUBJECT SIMPLE PREDICATE/ VERB Dog Barked COMPLETE SUBJECT COMPLETE PREDICATE/ VERB A cute little dog with a purple collar barked very loudly at the mailman. SUBJECT- Noun in a sentence that is doing the action. COMPOUND SUBJECT- 2 or more Subjects in a sentence. EXAMPLE: Billy and Kim ate pizza. Billy, Kim, and Sam ate pizza. COMPOUND SUBJECTS USING “OR” When “or” combines 2 subjects, use the subject closest to the verb to determine whether the verb is singular or plural. EXAMPLE: The waiters or the manager serves dinner to the guests. PV The managers or the waiters serve dinner to the guests. SV Your teacher or your parents are making sure you study. PV Your parents or your teacher is making sure you study. SV What three ingredients does a complete sentence need? A) Subject B) Verb C) Complete thought Define a “Fragment”: An incomplete sentence; A group of words that does not express a complete thought. EXAMPLE: on the baseball field could have slept later the boy in the baggy pants after we left the pool What are the two ways to fix a fragment? A) Add missing ingredients, such as: subject, verb, complete thought B) Attach or connect it to the sentence before or after Define a “Run-On”: A sentence that has 2 or more sentences smashed together without anything between them EXAMPLE: I was hungry I ate lunch. (run-on) I was hungry; I ate lunch. (correction #1) I was hungry, so I ate lunch. (correction #2) I was hungry. I ate lunch. (correction #3) Define a “Comma-Splice”: Like a run-on, 2 or more sentences that only has a comma in between them, which is not enough EXAMPLE: I was tired, I went to bed. (comma-splice) I was tired, so I went to bed. (correcting comma-splice = complete sentence) What are the four ways to fix a run-on or comma-splice? A) Period + Capitalization B) Semi-colon C) Comma + FANBOYS D) Dependent word COORELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS- Pairs of conjunctions that join or relate similar words. Either….Or Not only….But also Neither…..N or Both…..And EXAMPLE: You may either eat this ice cream or drink this milk shake. Neither Jason nor Julio are ready to leave. Tonya ate not only her peas but also her carrots. We will need both fruit and vegetables for our smoothie. List all seven of the “FANBOYS” words: Coordinating Conjunctions (connects 2 independent clauses). For An d Nor But Or Yet So EXAMPLE: Griffin or Sam will be the leader. Zach played, sand, and swam after school. We arrived late, so we skipped dinner. They were not hungry, for they had already eaten. (Comma + FANBOYS) Subordinating Conjunctions- Joins a dependent clause to a main (independent) clause. If an AAAWWUUBBISS is the first word in a sentence, it causes a comma. After Althoug h As When While Until Unless Before Because If Sinc e So More words: As though, So that, Than, Whenever, As if, Even though, Though, As soon as. ***Subordinating Conjunctions come at the beginning of “Subordinate (dependent) clause” *** Dependent clause: subject, verb, does not complete a thought, cannot stand on its own (not a sentence). EXAMPLE: Even though I cried, I felt better. After I left the movies, I went home. ***Begins with a subordinating conjunction*** Dependent words: Fancy Transition Words (transitional expression): Therefore Then Thus In addition In fact Indeed However Likewise Moreover Furthermor e https://msu.edu/~jdowell/135/transw.html PRONOUNS & ANTECEDENTS PRONOUN- A word that takes place of a noun. ANTECEDENT- The noun that the pronoun is replacing. [I, you, he, she, it, we, they, him, her, us, them]. EXAMPLE: Becky Sue was tired, so after school she rode her bike home to take a nap. Hopefully you enjoyed our lesson on pronouns that we prepared for you! Antecedent= Becky Sue TWO CATEGORIES OF NOUNS=COMMON NOUN & PROPER NOUN COMMON NOUN- Any one of a person, place or thing PROPER NOUN- Refers to a specific person, place or thing. (Requires Capitalization) https://www.umaryland.edu/media/umb/oaa/campus-life/writing-center/documents/Capitalization.pdf https:// www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/capital.asp https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/592/1/ CAPITALIZATION BASIC RULES -Capitalize proper nouns of people & specific places (streets, cities, states, mountains...etc). -Capitalize first word of every sentence. -Capitalize specific holidays, months, days (DO NOT CAPITALIZE SEASONS). -Capitalize religions, religion holidays & texts. CAPITALIZATION ADVANCE RULES -Capitalize a person’s title, when it take the place of the person name, or if it is used in direct address. -Capitalize words used to name regions, but DO NOT CAPITALIZE DIRECTIONS (points on a compass). -Capitalize brand names or organizations used as nouns or objectives. -Capitalize major words in titles (no prepositions, articles) ***remember to apply these rules in your writing*** ADJECTIVE- A describing word COMMON ADJECTIVE- Words that describes nouns and pronouns. Adjectives answer four questions: What kind? Which one? How many? How much? EXAMPLE (how many?): I ate four slices of pizza. Multiple businesses closed for the holiday. How many? What kind?: Several pandas rolled in the green grass. What kind?: I ate a delicious apple. She purchased a rare book. Which one?: The little boy smiled. I chose that flavor of ice cream. The winning ticket was underneath the chair. How much?: There were few candidates left in the debate. We had sufficient time to complete the tasks. PREPOSITION- Links a noun or pronoun to other words in a sentence. Prepositional phrases= hows the relationship between person, place or thing. Preposition, is basically like a bunch of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. EXAMPLE: The cookies are in the cupboard. The plane flew through the white and puffy cloud. The cat was hiding under the chair. The puppy was resting on top of the worn tattered bed. Janice set her jump rope on the old blue desk. She read the book during class. COMPOUND PREPOSITION: From, to, of (at the end of a word) EXAMPLE: due to, In addition to, aside from, out of, on top of, across from, according to PREPOSITION WORDS: (memorize) About, above, across, after, against, along, among, as, at, around, before, behind, beneath, by, beside, between, into, like, near, of, off, for, inside, into, out, outside, on, onto, over, with, within, in, through, to, under, underneath, until, from, regarding, opposite, except, up, but POSSESSIVE WITH A GERUND Incorrect: I appreciate you helping me. Correct: I appreciate your helping me. (it’s the help that belongs to you!) Incorrect: Me crying made her sad. Correct: My crying made her sad. Incorrect: That baby laughing is infectious. Correct: That baby’s laughing is infectious. HYPHENS-Used to establish clarity with prefixes NUMBERS= Twenty-five books COMPOUND NOUNS= Great-grandfather, Great-niece, COMPOUND ADJECTIVES= Once-a-day vitamin EXAMPLE: I’d like to re-press those shirts Please re-sign that form. APOSTROPHES: BASIC RULES Two Ways To Use Apostrophes 1. To contract words (ie, contractions) 2. To show possession (ie, possessives) Contractions Do not put your feet there. Don’t put your feet there. We can not go to the beach. We can’t go to the beach. I should have said something. I should’ve said something. Possession To form the possessive of any singular noun, use an apostrophe and an “s” (‘s): The dog’s house… The woman’s shoes… Charles’s shirt… The boss’s office… To form the possessive of any plural noun NOT ending in “s” use an apostrophe and an “s” (‘s): The children’s playroom… The women’s dressing room… The geese’s feathers… To form the possessive of any plural noun ending in “s” use an apostrophe and an “s” (s’): The bosses’ offices… The churches’ parishioners… The schools’ principals… Apostrophes with individual and joint possession. ----We know apostrophes indicate possession, but what happens when you have a compound subject showing possession? Who owns what? Individual Possession- (both take apostrophes) Luke’s and Jamilia’s toys are scattered on the floor. Your mom’s and your dad’s shoes are on the closet floor. Joint Possession- (one apostrophe on last subject) Luke and Jamilia’s toys are scattered on the floor. Your mom and dad’s love for you is everlasting. MODIFIER- a word, phrase, clause that changes the meaning of something MISPLACED MODIFIER- a modifier appearing incorrectly in the sentence. Put the Modifier(s) next to the word(s) they’re describing. That way people won’t get confused being described. EXAMPLE: We ate a cold plate of shrimp for dinner. We ate a plate of cold shrimp for dinner. They quickly ate the dinner they had prepared. They ate the dinner they had quickly prepared. He threw the ball to the girl made of orang rubber. He threw the ball made of orange rubber to the girl. They watched the sunset sitting on the porch. Sitting on the porch, they watched the sunset. What is voice (in a grammatical sense)? Voice refers to the form a verb which indicates whether its subject is performing the action or whether subject is being acted upon. Two kinds of voice Active Voice Passive Voice (Subject performs action) (Subject is acted upon) EX: Makayla returned the book. The book was returned by Makayla. Felix grew cucumbers. Cucumbers were grown by Felix. Jill’s parents ate the cakes. The cakes were eaten by Jill’s parents. Hopefully, you have learned something new in this lesson! (active voice) Hopefully, something new has been learned by you! (passive voice) HOMONYMS are words that sound alike but have different meanings. Homophones are a type of homonym that also sound alike and have different meanings, but have different spellings. HOMOGRAPHS are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings. HOMOPHONES- Set of words that are pronounced similarly but have different meanings. . Homophones bare/bear, brake/break, die/dye, effect/affect, flour/flower, heal/heel, insure/ensure, morning/mourning, peace/piece, poor/pour, principal/principle, sole/soul,stair/stare, suite/sweet, their/there/they’re, wear/where HOMOGRAPH is a word that has the same spelling as another word but has a different sound and a different meaning: lead (to go in front of)/ lead (a metal) wind (to follow a course that is not straight)/ wind (a gust of air) bass (low, deep sound)/ bass (a type of fish) HOMONYM is a word that is said or spelled the same way as another word but has a different meaning. "Write” and “right” is a good example of a pair of homonyms. Homonym traces back to the Greek words homos, meaning “same,” and onuma, meaning “name.” So a homonym is sort of like two people who have the same name: called the same thing but different. A homonym can be a word that sounds the same as something else — like by (“near”) and buy (“purchase”) — or it can be spelled exactly the same way and pronounced differently — like minute(unit of time) and minute (“tiny”). buy - to purchase by - (1) close to; (2) no later than; (3) through the action of ex: Buy furniture from Sofas Inc. by the end of the year, and you won’t have to pay until March. past - (1) the time before the present; (2) by passed - (the past tense of pass) (1) handed to; (2) went by; (3) completed successfully ex: In the past, I have passed all my courses, but I may not pass them all this semester. principle - a guideline or rule principal - (1) main; (2) the person in charge of a school ex: Our principal believes in the principle of giving teachers a great deal of freedom. a - used before words that begin with a consonant sound an - used before words that begin with a vowel or a silent h (as in an hour) ex: Would you like an ice cream cone or a shake. accept - (1) to receive; (2) to agree to take; (3) to believe in except - (1) excluding or leaving out; (2) but ex: All the employees except the part-timers were willing to accept the new contract. advice - opinion meant to be helpful advise - to give an opinion meant to be helpful ex: Never take the advice of someone who advises you to act against your conscience. affect - to influence; have an effect upon effect - a result or impact of something; an outward appearance ex: Divorce affects an entire family, and its effects-both good and bad-last for years. desert - (1) a verb, “to leave or abandon”; (2) a noun, “a dry region with little or no plant growth” dessert - a sweet course eaten at the end of a meal ex: The children were willing to desert the TV set only when dessert was served. fewer - used for items that can be counted less - used for general amounts ex: As our congregation ages, our church is left with fewer members and less financial support. loose - (1) not tight; (2) free; not confined lose - (1) to misplace; (2) to not win; (3) to be deprived of something one has had ex: If you don’t fix that loose steering wheel, you could lose control of your car. quiet - (1) silent; (2) relaxing and peaceful quite - (1) truly; (2) very; (3) completely quit - (1) to stop doing something; (2) to resign from one’s job ex: Giselle was quiet after saying she might want to quit her job but that she wasn’t quite sure. than - a word used in comparisons then - (1) at that time; (2) next ex: First Dad proved he was a better wrestles than I am; then he helped me improve. use - to make use of used (to) - accustomed to or in the habit of ex: I am used to very spicy food, but when I cook for others, I use much less hot pepper. were - the past tense of are we’re - contraction of we are ex: We’re going to visit the town in Florida where my grandparents were born. WHO vs. WHOM Who- used as a subject Whom- used as an object (Nominative case) (Objective case) Substitute “he” for who Substitute “him” for whom Who = he Whom = him Who called Leslie? (“He” called Leslie?) Leslie called whom? (Leslie called “him?”) FREQUENTLY MISSPELLED WORDS: Accommodate, Receive, Argument, Recommend, Commitment, Consensus, Deductible, Dependent, Embarrass, Existence, Foreword, Harass, Inadvertent, Indispensable, Liaison, License, Occasion, Occurrence, Perseverance, Prerogative, Privilege, Proceed, Separate, Supersede, Withhold, Acknowledgement, Judgement. http://www.esldesk.com/vocabulary/misspelled-words http://www.theenglishstudent.com/blog/category/grammar “i” before “e” - piece cashier believe tried friend “e” before “i” - deceive receive ceiling leister neithe r sound like “A” - neighbor eight vein weigh t feign COLONs- are introductory devices. They introduce a list of items or to signal something important, such as, WARNING: MEDICINE MAY CAUSE DROWSINESS. COLON RULES- Use a colon after an independent clause. Do not use a colon immediately after a verb. Do not capitalize on the first letter after a colon (unless it’s a quote). Incorrect: We ate: pizza, candy, and ice cream. Correct: We ate the following items: pizza, candy, and ice cream. (list) Correct: Lincoln began with the following: “Four score and seven…” (quote) COLON tend to come after statements that require further explanation. EXAMPLE: Latoya had only one item left to do: turn in her essay. There was something shane feared the most: public speaking. The coach asked a final request of his players: win the game. Salutation of a Business Letter (COLON) Dear Sir or Madam: It has come to our attention that… To whom it May Concern: We have received numerous complaints… Answer the following: compound, simple, complex, and compound-complex sentences. 1. Darcy stayed home from school on Friday. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 2. Lisa got sent to the principal's office because she was late. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 3. Go clean your room. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex 4. Although it was raining and the roads were slippery, we decided to go for a bike ride. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 5. Our class made $25 at the fund-raiser, and we're going to donate it to the food bank. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 6. If you want to go to the mall, you'll have to clean your room A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 7. Don't wait! A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 8. I wanted to play the drums, but my teacher wants me to play the trombone because there are too many drummers already. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 9. When I grow up, I want to be a fireman. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 10. I want a new doll, but I haven't saved enough money yet. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 11. When I graduate, I want to go to college, but first I want to travel. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 12. Jamal wants to go to the movies, but he doesn't have enough money. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 13. If I want to get a good grade, I'll have to study more. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 14. When I graduate I want to go to college, but first I want to travel. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex 15. I want to do well in school because I want to go to college, but I have a lot of trouble with math. A: Simple B: Compound C: Complex D: Compound-Complex ANSWERS: A, C, A, D, B, C, A, D, C, B, D, B, C, B, D 1. Although he searched everywhere, Mr. Brooks could not find the keys to the computer lab. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 2. The vacation to Myrtle Beach should be extremely restful. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 3. While the music played, Rachel sneaked in through the side door. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 4. Eric ran home the rest of the way because he knew he was in trouble. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 5. Sarah and Ashley giggled and whispered all night. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 6. Those clouds promise snow; we might get another snow day off from school. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 7. Mara and Kelly had planned to return to Canada. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 8. Dad went hunting, but Mama decided to stay home. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 9. Her left arm was badly broken at the wrist during the car accident. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 10. A simple sentence that stands alone is called . A. a dependent clause B. an independent clause C. a phrase 11. Dr. Matthews did what could be done, but it simply was not enough to save his life. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 12. Mrs. Carrero said that will be enough, and everyone agreed. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 13. My classmates were wearing heavy clothes in the winter months. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 14. A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause is called . A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 15. What type of sentence has two independent clauses and is joined by a FANBOYS (conjunction) or a semicolon? A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 16. A subject and a verb that cannot stand alone is called a . A. simple sentence B. independent clause C. dependent clause D. complex sentence 17. I know you don't like him, but that doesn't matter. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 18. Elijah remained at home because he had a sore throat. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 19. Since we had only gone a mile from camp, we could turn back before dark. A. a simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence 20. In which of the following sentence types are FANBOYS or semicolons (;) used to join clauses? A simple sentences B compound sentences C complex sentences ANSWERS: C, A, C, C, A, B, A, B, A, B, B, B, A, C, B, C, B, C, C, B Teas 6 - Everything. All sets combined. Website below. Just copy & paste. GOOD LUCK! [Show Less]
- Exam
- $8.45
- 0
- 923
ati-teas-math-study-guide-questions-with-answers-and-step-by-step-calculations-and-explanations
ati-teas-math-study-guide-questions-with-answers-and-step-by-step-calculations-and-explanations ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 1 (These questi... [Show More] ons are similar problems 1 through 4 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Stud 1a. Convert 1/5 to it's equivalent decimal and percent. 1b. Convert 1.28 to it's equivalent fraction and percent. 1c. Convert 46.2% to it's equivalent fraction and decimal. ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 2 (These questions are similar to problems 5 through 7 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas S 5. Show the steps needed to solve the following equation. Jose is trying to calibrate his new fitness watch. The app that comes with the watch asks for the user to input Using 2.5 feet as his stride, how many feet will Jose walk if he takes 6000 steps in a day? How many miles is this? 7. Javon and Evette are taking a road trip. The total distance of the trip will be 986 miles. They have already tr ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 3 (These questions are similar to problems 8 through 10 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas 8. A new cell phone has just been released and many retailers are offering discounts or lower prices to compe feet long. The average thickness of one of her books is 1.25 inches. About how many books could she expect to 10. A quick bread recipe calls for 3 oz of water for every 4 oz of flour. A baker has added 7/8 pound of flour to AS MATH - TEAS 6 Review Part 4 e questions are similar to problems 11 and 12 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Man 250 people at a convention, 130 of them are women. s the ratio of the women to the total number of people at the convention? s the ratio of the men to the total number of people at the convention? s the ratio of the women to the men? s the ratio of the men to the women? 12. John does not use a lot of data on his cell phone plan. His cellular provider gave him the option of paying John has budgeted $80 for his phone plan, excluding taxes and hidden fees. Write an inequality that allows J 3.157894737 ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 5 (This material is similar to problem 13 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manual). 13. The table above shows the monthly utility bill, rounded to the nearest dollar for each month of a year for Make a scatter plot, identifying the independent and dependent variables. Make a time series graph. Let's look at some other graphs. ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 6 (This material is similar to problems 14 and 15 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study M 14. Find the mean, median, mode, and range of the data set, which is a list of test grades a teacher recorded 74, 81, 92, 68, 66, 97, 81, 74 15. Determine if the following situations below represent a positive or negative correlation. A positive correlation is a relationship between two variables where if one variable increases, the other one also increases. A positive corr A negative correlation means that there is an inverse relationship between two variables - when one variable decreases, the other increas ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 7 (This material is similar to problem 16 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manual). 16. A Norman window has a unique shape. The lower part is a rectangle (or sometimes square) with a semicircle on top of it. a. The rectangular part of the window is 7 feet tall and 5 feet wide. Find a formula using the given measurements that would give you the area of the Norman window? What is the total area of the window? Use 3.14 for and round your answer to the nearest hundredth. b. You need to replace the glass in both parts of the window. One company will charge you a fixed rate of $5.00 per square foot. Another company will charge you $3.00 per square foot for the rectangular section and $9.00 per square foot for the semicircular part of the window (since the glass has to be a special cut). Which is the better deal? ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 8 (This material is similar to problem 17 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manual). 17. Shay is ordering a square table from another country outside of the United States. The specifications of th Knowing that 2.54 cm is equal to one inch, what is the length of the side of the table in feet and inches? ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 9 (This material is similar to problems 18-20 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manual). 18. Express 7/8 as a decimal and a percent. 19. Simplify the expression: 12 + 6 ( 42 - 5 ) / 3 20. Put the following numbers, in order, from greatest to 12 + 6 ( 42 - 5 ) ÷ 3 ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 10 (This material is similar to problems 21 and 22 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study M 21. Solve the equation. 5x - 4 = 3x + 11 22. Solve the equation. x/3 - 6 = 4 ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 11 (This material is similar to problems 23 and 24 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study M Carie cleans houses as a side job. For dusting, she charges $16.00 per room. For vacuuming, she charges $12. $552.00. She knows that she has dusted 18 rooms. How many rooms has she vacuumed? There are 48 people in a meeting. Twenty of the people in the meeting are women. What percentage of the p ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 12 (This material is similar to problem 25 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manual). 25. Santa's workshop just finished making a bicycle for Jackson since he was a good boy nearly all year. The el Front and Back Top and Bottom Left and Right Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manual). onds to 4 feet in the actual house. If a rectangular shaped bedroom measures 5 inches by house? Leave your answer in square feet. traveled for 4 hours, about how many more hours do you have to travel if the entire road trip is 840 miles, assum ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 14 (This material is similar to problem 28 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manual). 28. John went to a local pizza restaurant and ordered two slices of pizza and a soda. This cost John $9.00. Joh 3 slices of pizza and two sodas. This totaled $14.50. Write equations that model these transactions where "p *Bonus: How much does one slice of pizza and one soda cost? ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 15 (This material is similar to problems 29-31 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manu 29. The number of milligrams, y, of a particular medicine in the bloodstream, x hours after taking it is shown on the graph to the left. Dete The maximum amount of medicine in the bloodstream is 350mg and occurs 2 hours after taking the medicine. There is no medicine in the bloodstream approximately 8 hours after taking it. There is more medicine in the bloodstream 1 hour after taking it as compared to 4 hours after taking it. The amount of medicine in the blood stream increases for the first three hours and then decreases until there is no medicine in the bloods 30. Carter County Schools surveyed seniors graduating from the six high schools in the county, asking them if they were attending any for 31. The scatterplot below shows the number of absences in an 8 week course for eleven students and their o A negative relationship! As one thing goes up the other thing goes down. ATI TEAS MATH - TEAS 6 Mixed Review Part 16 (This material is similar to problem 32 found in the Mathematics Section Quiz in the ATI Teas Study Manual). 32. A mold to create a solid concrete slab in the shape given below is to be used for highway construction. Th [Show Less]
- Exam
- $8.45
- 0
- 275
ATI TEAS 6 ALL SECTIONS PREP: EVERYTHING YOU NEED (100% Guarantee)
ATI TEAS 6 ALL SECTIONS PREP: EVERYTHING YOU NEED (100% Guarantee) ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Anatomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body... [Show More] . Microscopic Anatomy: examines cells and molecules. Cytology: study of cells. Histology: study of tissues. Physiology: is the study of functions of anatomical structures. *Smallest living is a CELL. *Smallest organisms is a ATOM. Levels of Hierarchy Atom- the most basic complete unit of an element. Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. Organelles- are cells parts that function within a cell. Cells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual cell. Tissues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs. Organ- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two or more similar tissues. Organ System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body: circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular and nervous. Humans have 11 Organ Systems. Cells Structure • Nucleus- holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin • Ribosomes- small structures that build proteins “amino acids”. • Golgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell. • Vacuoles- storage, digestion and waste removal. • Cytoskeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape/support cell. • Microtubules- part of the cytoskeletal. • Cytosol- liquid material in cell. • Cell membrane- separate internal and external cellular environment allows material to enter and exit cell. • Endoplasmic Reticulum- smooth or rough transport system of the cell. • Mitochondria- generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular respiration Animal Cells Centrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis. Centriole- cylinders involved in cellular division. Lysosomes- the purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or break down the cell when it dies. Cilia- cause cell to move. Flagella- whip tail to move cell. TISSUES: ⟶ Group of CELLS. ⟶ Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective. 1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin 2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, Lymph. It protects and binds body parts. a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support ⟶ Fibrous b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and defends against disease. c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells 3. Muscle: supports and move body Smooth Cardiac Skeletal 4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons: control responses to changes in environment. Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Interphase - Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material. Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form. Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle structure. Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes. Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched. Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell. Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two. Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction. Gametes in female = Egg Gametes in Male = Sperm Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote. Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction. 1. Respiratory System • main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction. Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum. External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the entrances into the nasal cavity The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production. Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus. Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation. Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs. • Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse. Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs. Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively. Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch – an indentation for the heart’s apex. The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement. • Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface. • Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall. • Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together. Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue. Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body. • Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs. • Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs. Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing. Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal. Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal. Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse. Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH. Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing. Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections. 2. Cardiovascular System Hear t • Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity. • Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system • Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex points to left hip. Heart Coverings • Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits. Heart Layers • Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium. • Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective tissue forming the fibrous skeleton. • Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers. 4 chambers: 2 Atria, 2 Ventricles Atria- the superior chambers, ear like extensions of the atria, receiving chambers limited pumping means thin walls. Ventricles- the inferior chambers, majority of heart volume, pumping chambers thick walls. Sulci – the indentations on the outer heart surface, correspond between chambers contains fats and vessels. Septa- the internal walls that divide the chambers. Right Atrium • Superior Vena Cava- blood returning from above the diaphragm. • Inferior Vena Cava - blood returning from below the diaphragm. • Coronary Sinus- blood returning from the heart wall. Left Atrium • 4 pulmonary veins- blood returning from lungs. Right Ventricle • Receives blood from the right atrium. • Blood exits into the pulmonary trunk to lungs. Left Ventricle • Receives blood from the left atrium • Blood exits into the aorta to the body. **Blood only pass through ½ of the heart at a time, and therefore must pass through the heart twice to complete circulation. Pulmonary Circuit • The pathway from the heart to the lungs and back. • Is pumped by the right half of the heart • Blood leaves –O2 and returns +O2 Systemic Circuit • The pathway from the heart to the body’s tissues and back • Is pumped by the left half of the heart • Blood leaves +O2 and returns –O2 CIRCULATION Superior & Inferior Vena Cava --- Right Atrium- Tricuspid Valve- Right Ventricle -- Pulmonary Semi Lunar Valve-- Pulmonary Trunk -- Lungs- Heart- Four Pulmonary Veins---- Left Atrium --- Mitral Valve-- Left Ventricle- Aortic Semilunar Valve-- Aorta Coronary Circulation- the series of vessels that supply blood flow to the wall of the heart and beginning at the aorta and ending at the right atrium. Atrioventricular Valves • Separate an atrium from a ventricle. • Prevent backflow into the atrium Tricuspid Valve – separates right atrium from right ventricle Bicuspid Valve – separates left atrium from left ventricle. Also, known as mitral valve. Sinoatrial Node- in the right atrium, the “pacemaker” whose cells generate the sinus rhythm. Heart Sounds- the “lub” and “dub” • Lub- the sound produced by the closure of the AV valves. (mitral and tricuspid valves) • Dub- the sound of produced by the closure of the semilunar valves. Systole- the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood “contraction” Diastole- The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood “relaxation” Cardiac Cells • Large amount of mitochondria for endurance • Generate electrical impulses. • Interconnected- fibers are linked and work in unison. Arteries- blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body. Veins- blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Bloo d • Connective tissue • pH- 7.35-7.45 • Volume- 4-6L Functions- Transport of hormones gases and nutrients, etc. Regulation of pH, body temp and water balance. Protection from blood loss and infection. Plasma – liquid component of blood composed of water, plasma proteins and non-protein solutes. Erythrocytes- red blood cells lack nucleus, functions of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Leukocytes- white blood cells Thrombocytes- platelets Hemoglobin- protein composing 97% of RBC volume. • Globin- amino acid based portion with 2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains • Heme- pigment portion with a central iron atom. 4 (one per globin chain) Hematopoiesis- blood cell formation occurs in the bone marrow. Leukocytes- white blood cells, possess nuclei and organelles, function is to provide immune responses. T-cells – target virally infected cells. B-cells- make antibodies. Lymphatic System - Series of vessels, tissues and organs performing 2 major functions: • Vessels return to the blood any fluids and proteins that leaked into tissues. • Tissues and organs house cells for immune functioning. Lymphatic vessels – the series of vessels draining lymph, returning it to the blood in a unidirectional flow. Lymphoid cells • Lymphocytes – the T cells and B cells that fight disease-causing pathogens. • Plasma cells – specialized B cells that produce antibodies. • Macrophages – phagocytize any foreign cells or debris. • Dendritic cells – specialized phagocytes with cellular projections. • Reticular cells – produce the web of reticular fibers (stroma) that support the lymphoid cells. Lymph – the protein-rich, interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels. Lacteals – specialized lymphatic capillaries of the small intestine that absorb lymph that is high in fat content, called chyle. Lymph nodes – the most abundant lymphoid organs, scattered amongst the lymphatic vessels, and clustered in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions • Filter lymph of foreign cells and debris via phagocytes • Activate the immune system by stimulating lymphocytes 3. Gastrointestinal System (Digestive System) Structures of the Digestive Tract: • Alimentary canal - The continuous tube from mouth to anus whose organs perform various digestive functions • Accessory structures - the additional organs and glands that play a role in digestion Functions of the Digestive System: • Ingestion - taking food into the alimentary canal at the mouth. • Propulsion - the movement of food through the alimentary canal. • Peristalsis – waves of muscle contraction that propel food. • Mechanical digestion - physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. • Segmentation – contractions of the alimentary canal that mixes food. • Chemical digestion - food molecules are broken down via enzymes. • Absorption - transport of digested materials from lumen through an epithelium into the blood or lymph. • Defecation – removal of indigestible materials through the anus. Oral cavity - start of the alimentary canal where ingestion occurs. Begins mechanical digestion via chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion via enzymes. • Teeth - bony structures used in mastication. • Tongue – skeletal muscle used to manipulate food and form a bolus. • Palate – roof of the oral cavity, hard and soft regions. • Uvula – extension of the soft palate, blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing. Salivary glands – paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to moisten food and cleanse the oral cavity. Saliva – secretion containing salivary amylase which begins chemical digestion of starches. Also contains IgA antibodies and lysozymes to clear potential pathogens. Pharynx - Begins propulsion, transporting food from the oral cavity to the esophagus, performing the act of deglutition (swallowing) • Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transport food Deglutition – when swallowing, the elevation of the larynx and uvula block the respiratory passages ensuring food enters the esophagus. Stomach – stores food, performing mechanical digestion via churning and chemical digestion via enzymes. Chyme – the acidic, paste-like substance passed to the small intestine after about 4 hours. Regions: The cardia is nearest to the esophagus, the fundus is the superior dome, the body is the central region, and the pylorus is nearest the small intestine Gastric ulcers – erosion of the stomach wall, typically caused by a bacterium. Pyloric sphincter – circular muscle regulating chyme movement into the small intestine. Gastric pits/glands – invaginations of the stomach mucosa containing cells that produce the gastric juices. • Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen that quickly becomes pepsin, a protein enzyme that works best in acidic pH. • Parietal cells – secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), to produce acidic environment. • Mucous neck cells – produce mucus that with the mucous of goblet cells protects the mucosa. • Enteroendocrine cells – secrete local hormones to regulate stomach activity. Small intestine – coiled digestive organ transporting food from stomach to large intestine. Completes digestion and performs all nutrient absorption. Receives secretions form liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. Regions – divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi) – regulates the entrance of secretions from the liver, gall bladder and pancreas into the duodenum. Specializations for absorption: • Villi– finger-like projections of the mucosa that increase surface area of the epithelium. Each villus contains a capillary bed and a lacteal for nutrient absorption. • Intestinal crypts – invaginations producing intestinal juices, a mucous secretion. • Microvilli – finger-like extensions of the epithelial cell membranes with attached “brush border enzymes,” further increasing surface area. Liver – a 4-lobed gland whose digestive function is the production of bile. Bile – a green, alkaline fluid containing bilirubin pigment and bile salts that perform emulsification of fats. Drains from the liver via the hepatic ducts. Emulsification – the physical breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets, thus increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion. Gall bladder - muscular sac on the posterior surface of the liver that stores and concentrates bile. The gall bladder is drained by the cystic duct. The Pancreas – gland whose acinar cells produces pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes such as proteases, lipases, nucleases, and amylases. Large Intestine (Colon) - transports food from the small intestine to the anus while absorbing water and forming feces. Ileocecal valve – regulates movement of food from the small to the large intestine. Haustra – individual pouches of the large intestine wall. Teniae coli – thin longitudinal muscle layer forming the haustra. Regions: • Cecum - pouch-like region with the hanging vermiform appendix. • Ascending colon – transports food up the right side of the abdomen, turning at the hepatic flexure. • Transverse colon – transports food across the abdomen, turning at the splenic flexure. • Descending colon – transports food down the left side of the abdomen. • Sigmoid colon – s-shaped region. Rectum – most distal region of the colon, where feces is stored until defecation. Rectal valves – projections that allow gases to pass around feces. Anus – end of the alimentary canal from which defecation occurs. Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle regulating anal opening. External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle regulating anal opening. 4. Neuromuscular System (Nervous System) Skeletal Muscle Fiber (cells)- long, multinucleated cells containing many proteins and many mitochondria. Sarcolemma- the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber, nuclei just beneath. Sarcoplasm-the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber. Glycosomes-compartments that store glycogen, provides glucose during activity. Myofilaments- the protein-based contractile elements whose specific pattern gives the striated appearance. Thick Filaments- composed of a bundle of myosin proteins. Thin Filaments- composed of actin and other proteins. NMJ- where a motor neurons axon meets a skeletal muscle fiber. Action Potential- the electrical current that travels along the neuron, then to the sarcolemma to trigger muscle contraction. Acetylcholine (ACh)- neurotransmitter used at NMJ’s to trigger contractions, released from neuron and crosses synaptic cleft. Afferent Nerves- sensory nerves that send message to the CNS Efferent Nerves- motor nerves that send message to muscles. ANS- autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions including cardiac and smooth muscle, heart, digestion and breathing. Axon- a nerve fiber. Contraction- elongating or shortening of muscle to perform muscle actions. Nerve- a bundle of axons that transmit electrical impulses to peripheral organs. Synapse- the structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons. 5. Reproductive System Male Reproductive Testes- the primary sex organs, producing sperm and sex hormones. • Sustain developing sperm, and produce proteins used in sperm production. Scrotum- the sac of skin that contains the testes. • Provides ideal temp for sperm • Dartos Muscle- contracts to fold scrotum wall. • Cremaster Muscle-contracts to elevate testes. Prostate & Seminal Vesicles- produce the fluids necessary for lubricating and nourishing sperm. Penis- the male copulatory system. Testosterone- the hormone that stimulates male secondary sexual characteristics. The Duct System • Epididymis- coiled tubules clinging to the testes where sperm mature and gain their ability to swim. • Vas deferens- tubule that transports sperm from the epididymis to the prostate gland, • Urethra- passage that transports semen and urine. Female Reproductive Ovaries- primary sex organ, producing eggs and sex hormones. Estrogen is produced in ovaries. Fallopian tubes- transports an egg from and ovary to uterus Fimbriae- finger-like projections at the opening of the fallopian tube that sweep eggs in. Uterus- hollow, muscular organ that can house and nourish a developing embryo. Females produce estrogen from the ovaries, which causes the egg to mature in the ovary’s Graafian follicle and the uterine endometrium to thicken. A surge of LH, luteinizing hormone, from the pituitary causes the developing egg to be released. The empty Graafian follicle is now called the corpus luteum and produces large amounts of progesterone to prepare the endometrium for implantation of the egg. 6. Integumentary System (Exocrine) • Largest organ in this system is the SKIN. • Synthesizes vitamin D. a) Skin: Sebaceous glands, sweat glands Hair Nails b) Protection: Protects body from pathogens c) Secretion: Secretes oil d) Communication: Sensory receptors send information about pain, touch, pressure, and temperature. 1. Epidermis: a) Most superficial layer of the skin b) Epithelial cells *Does not contains any blood vessels c) Stratum Basale • Deepest portion • Single layer of cells • Keratinized • Creates Skin color • Protect against UV rays 2. Dermis: • Mostly connective tissue • Blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands. • Elastin and collagen fibers 3. Subcutaneous Layer/ Hypodermis • Connective tissue o Binds skin to muscle • Fat deposits cushion and insulate Five types of Skin Layers in the Epidermis: “Come Let’s Get Sun Burned” (Top to Bottom) • Stratum Corneum – all dead cells • Stratum Lucidum – dead cells in thick skin • Stratum Granulosum -mixture of old cells that are alive and dying cells • Stratum Spinosum – fairly young and happy cells • Stratum Basale – new healthy cells being produced (Melanin is in this layer; its job is to created skin color) Temperature Homeostasis: Skin is involved in temperature homeostasis through sweat glands. Sebaceous and Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands: Both are Exocrine glands. They relieve chemicals to the duct to open cavities. Example: Tears, Sweat and Saliva. Sudoriferous Glands- sweat glands. (exocrine) Sebaceous Glands- lubricating oily into hair follicles to lubricate skin and hair. (apocrine) Keratin: Is a protein and the major component of hair, skin and nails. 7. Endocrine System Anatomy – scattered glands that produce and release hormones into the blood Function – control of the body, but effects are slow and prolonged (opposite of nervous system) Gland types: • Exocrine – produce non-hormonal secretions through ducts. • Endocrine – ductless glands that produce hormones secreted directly into body fluids. • Mixed glands – perform both endocrine and exocrine functions. Humoral – hormones released in response to changes in body fluids (ions, nutrients, etc.) Neural – hormone release in response to nervous stimulation. Hormonal – hormone release in response to hormones from other endocrine glands. Negative Feedback – rising levels of a hormone causes secretion of that hormone to stop The Pituitary Gland • hangs from the brain’s hypothalamus via a stalk called the infundibulum. All pituitary secretions are initiated by the hypothalamus!!! Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) – Inhibits urination. prevents changes in water balance by stimulating water reabsorption in the kidney tubules. Thyroid Hormone (TH) – a mix of two hormones made by follicular cells: Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) named for the number of iodine atoms attached Functions: • control of metabolic rate • regulates tissue growth and development • maintains blood pressure Adrenal Glands-Paired glands, located above each kidney. The Pancreas • Located beneath the stomach • Mixed gland – acinar cells have exocrine (digestive) function • Groups of cells called pancreatic islets secrete hormones Hormones • Glucagon – secreted by alpha cells, used to elevate blood glucose levels • Insulin – secreted by beta cells, used to lower blood glucose levels The Gonads – the reproductive organs that produce steroidal sex hormones. • Ovaries – female structure producing estrogen and progesterone. Triggers changes at puberty and regulate the menstrual cycle • Testes – male structure producing testosterone. Triggers changes at puberty and regulates sperm production. The Pineal Gland – in the epithalamus of the brain, secretes melatonin to regulate the sleep- wake cycle by causing drowsiness. The Thymus – sits above the heart and diminishes with age, produces a group of hormones that activate T-lymphocytes. 8. Genitourinary System Urinary System – includes the paired kidneys and ureters and the single bladder and urethra. [Show Less]
- Exam
- $10.45
- 0
- 823
TEAS 6 Science Anatomy and Physiology Guide.
TEAS 6 Science Anatomy and Physiology Guide. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Endocrine System Gland/Organ Hormone Secreted Function Hypothalamus Releasing/I... [Show More] nhibiting hormones Stimulate Pituitary Anterior Pituitary (base of brain; controls growth and development Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Stimulate adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Stimulate the Thyroid gland Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Stimulates production of ova (females) and sperm (males) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Stimulates Ovaries (females) and Testes (males) Prolactin Stimulates milk production Growth Hormone (GH) Stimulates growth (bones) and metabolic functions Posterior Pituitary (back of anterior pituitary) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Promotes retention of water by the kidneys Oxytocin Stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary gland cells Pineal Gland (center of brain) Melatonin Sleep cycles; biorhythms Thyroid (neck; hormones regulate growth, development, and metabolism) Triiodothyronine (T3) Metabolism Thyroxine (T4) Metabolism and temperature Calcitonin Inhibits release of Calcium from bones Parathyroid (4 glands on Thyroid) Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Stimulates release of calcium from bones, back into blood. Thymus (lymphoid organ that produces T-Cells) Thymosin Stimulates T-Cell Development Adrenal Glands (Above Kidneys; regulate HR, BP, and other functions) See below See below Adrenal Cortex (stimulates fight or flight response) Cortisol/Glucocorticoids Stress response; Increase blood glucose, Decrease immune response; metabolism Aldosterone Regulates Na content in blood Adrenal Medulla (stimulates fight or flight response) Epinephrine Fight Norepinephrine Flight Ovaries (female gonads) Estrogen Stimulates egg maturation, controls 2ndary sex characteristics Progesterone Prepares uterus to receive fertilized egg Testes (male gonads) Testosterone Regulates sperm production and 2ndary sex characteristics Kidneys Erythropoietin Response to cellular hypoxia Renin Promotes production of Angiotensin Liver Angiotensin II Vasoconstriction, Increase BP Pancreas Glucagon (Alpha Cells) Increase blood glucose Insulin (Beta Cells) Decrease blood glucose Stomach Gastrin Response to food; stimulates production of gastric juices Intestine Secretin Response to acidity in small intestine; stimulates secretion by liver and pancreas Cholecystokinin Production of Bile Salts Heart Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Increase renal Na excretion, decrease ECF Gastrointestinal System Enzyme Production site Release site Carbs Salivary Amylase Salivary Glands Mouth Pancreatic Amylase Pancreas Small Intestine Maltase Small Intestine Small Intestine Protein Pepsin Chief Cells (gastric gland) Stomach Trypsin Pancreas Small Intestine Peptidases Small Intestine Small Intestine Nucleic Acids Nuclease Pancreas Small Intestine Nucleosidase Pancreas Small Intestine Lipids Lipase Pancreas Small Intestine Bile Salt Liver→Gallbladder Small Intestine *Bile is technically not an enzyme, but a salt that emulsifies lipid into fatty droplets. Chief Cells: Covert pepsinogen to pepsin Goblet Cells: Mucus secretions Parietal Cells: HCl production Peyer's Patches: Lymphatic Tissue found in Ileum to protect GI tract from pathogens Integumentary System Epidermis: Most superficial layer of skin; entirely epithelial cells ● Does NOT contain blood vessels ● 5 layers o Stratum Corneum: "Top Layer"- Dead keratinocytes o Stratum Lucidum: "Clear Layer"- Colorless protein eleidin o Stratum Granulosum: "Thin Layer"- granular layer o Stratum Spinosum: "Spiny Layer"- Thickest layer, keratinocytes, immune dendritic cells, sensory cells o Stratum Basale: "Basal Layer"- Bottom layer; contains melanocytes. Dermis: Directly below epidermis; mostly connective tissue ● Contains blood vessels ● Sensory receptors ● Hair follicles ● Sebaceous glands ● Sweat glands ● Elastin and Collagen fibers Hypodermis/SubQ: Connective tissue ● Binds the skin to underlying muscle ● Fat deposits cushion and insulate the body Glands Exocrine: Secrete substances into ducts ● Holocrine: secretory products; whole cells; connected to hair follicle o Sebaceous Glands: secrete sebum: an oily mixture of lipids and proteins; waterproofs skin, protects from pathogens ● Eccrine: Not connected to hair follicle, activated by high body temperature, located throughout the body. A type of sweat gland (sudoriferous gland) in thermoregulation. o Secrete a salty solution of electrolytes and water ▪ NaCl ▪ KHCO3 ▪ Glucose ▪ Antimicrobial Peptides ● Apocrine: Secrete an oily solution (fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins) o Located in: ▪ Armpits ▪ Groin ▪ Palms ▪ Soles of feet o Secrete (sweat) during anxiety or stress o Body Odor forms from bacteria feeding on apocrine sweat Urinary System Kidney (2): Regulates fluid balance and filters waste from blood ● Receive blood from renal artery (extension of aorta) ● Filter blood ● Reabsorb need materials ● Excrete waste and water via urine ● Renal Cortex: Outer Layer o Contains ~1 million Nephrons (filters) o Glomerulus: Capillary in nephron o Bowman's Capsule: encapsulates the glomerulus ● Renal Medulla: Middle Layer o Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Water, glucose, ions, and other organic molecules are reabsorbed back into the blood stream. o Distal Convoluted Tubule: Urea and drugs are removed from blood. pH in blood is adjusted with H+ ions. ● Renal Pelvis: Inner Layer o Materials arrive as urine from distal convoluted tubule. Reproductive System MALES ● Produce, maintain, and transfer sperm and semen into the female reproductive tract. ● Produce and secrete male hormones. External Organs: Penis, Scrotum, Testes ● Scrotum: Protects testes; keeps optimal temperature for spermatogenesis. ● Testes: Male gonads; produce sperm and testosterone. Internal Organs: Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Ducts, Urethra, Seminal Vesicles, and Bulbourethral glands ● Epididymis: Stores sperm as it matures ● Vas Deferens: Mature sperm move from epididymis to Vas Deferens to the ejaculatory duct ● Seminal Vesicles: Secrete alkaline fluids with protein and mucus into ejaculatory duct ● Prostate Gland: Secretes a milky white fluid with proteins and enzymes as part of semen ● Bulbourethral (Cowper's) Gland: Secrete a fluid to neutralize the acidity in the urethra Hormones ● FSH: Stimulates spermatogenesis ● LH: Stimulates testosterone production ● Testosterone: Male sex characteristics FEMALES ● Produce ova (oocytes/egg cells) ● Transfer ova to fallopian tubes for fertilization ● Receive sperm from male ● Provide a protective, nourishing environment for developing embryo External Organs: Labia Majora, Labia Minora, Bartholin's Glands, Clitoris ● Labia (both): Close and protect vagina ● Bartholin's Gland: Secrete lubricating fluid ● Clitoris: Contains erectile tissue and nerve endings for sensual pleasure Internal Organs: Ovaries, Fallopian Tubes, Uterus, Vagina ● Ovaries: Female gonads; produce ova, and secrete estrogen and progesterone ● Fallopian Tubes: Carry mature egg toward uterus; site of fertilization ● Uterus: Fertilized egg implants on uterine wall; protects and nourishes developing embryo until birth ● Vagina: Muscular tube from cervix to outside of body; receives semen, is site of intercourse, and birth canal Hormones ● Estrogen: Stimulates egg maturation; female sex characteristics ● Progesterone: Prepares uterus to receive fertilized egg ● FSH: Stimulates oogenesis ● LH: Stimulates estrogen production ● Oxytocin: Stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary gland cells ● Prolactin: Stimulates milk production Immune System Function: Protects the body against invading pathogens including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists. Lymphatic System: Lymph, lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, lymph nodes. ● Skeletal muscle contractions move the lymph one way through the lymphatic system to lymphatic ducts o Dump back into venous supply via lymph nodes ● Red marrow- produces blood cells ● Leukocytes- WBC Lymph Nodes: located in neck, armpit, and groin ● Small swellings in the lymphatic system where lymph is filtered and lymphocytes are formed Lymph Tissue: Tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen, peyer's patches ● Tonsils: Located in pharynx o Protect against pathogens entering via mouth or throat ● Thymus: Maturation chamber for immune T Cells formed in bone marrow ● Spleen: Cleans blood of dead cells and pathogens ● Peyer's Patches: Located in ileum of Sm. Intestine. o Protects GI tract from pathogens General Immune Defenses ● Skin: Primary barrier (intact) ● Ciliated Mucous Membranes: Cilia protect respiratory system ● Glandular Secretions: Exocrine- destroy bacteria ● Gastric Secretions: Gastric Acid destroys pathogens ● Normal Bacterial Populations: Compete with pathogens in gut and vagina 3 Types of WBC ● Macrophage: Phagocytes that alert T-Cells to the presence of foreign substances o Largest, longest living phagocyte o Engulf and destroy pathogens o Found in lymph ● T Lymphocytes: Directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria o Helper T, Killer T, Memory T, Suppressor T ● B Lymphocytes: Target specific bacteria for destruction o Plasma Cells: Antibody production. Other Immune Cells ● Helper T-Cells: Activate B-Cells to make Antibodies and other chemicals ● Suppressor T-Cells: Stop other T-Cells when the battle is over ● Memory T-Cells: Remain in blood on alert incase invader attacks again ● Killer/Cytotoxic T-Cells: Destroy Cells infected with a pathogen, virus, or tumor Leukocytes: WBC- Produced in Red Marrow ● Monocyte o Macrophage o Dendritic Cell: Present antigens to T Cell ● Granulocyte o Neutrophil: Short living phagocyte; responds quick to invaders o Basophil: Alerts body of invasion o Eosinophil: Large, long living phagocyte; Defend against multicellular invaders ● T Lymphocyte ● B Lymphocyte ● Natural Killer Cell Antibody Mediated Response: Response is to an antigen Cellular Mediated Response: Response is to an already infected cell Antigen: Foreign particle that stimulates the immune system ● Typically a protein on the surface of bacteria, virus, or fungi Antibody: A blood protein that counteracts a specific antigen Steps of Immune System 1. Macrophage engulfs antigen and presents fragments of antigen on its surface 2. A Helper T Cell joins the Macrophage 3. Killer/Cytotoxic T Cells and B Cells are activated 4. Killer/Cytotoxic T Cells search and destroy cells presenting the same antigen 5. B Cells differentiate into Plasma Cells and Memory Cells Innate Immune System ● Born with it ● Non Specific response ● EX) Skin, hair, mucus, earwax, secretions, normal flora, antimicrobials, inflammation, interferons, complement, NK Lymphocytes, phagocytes Adaptive Immune System ● Responds to specific antigens ● Vaccinations or previous encounters o Reaction: Cytotoxic T Cells kill pathogen o Prevention: B Cells produce Antibodies ● Activated by Antigen and Helper T Cells ● Helper T Cells activated by Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) Naturally Acquired Active Immunity: Exposure to pathogen without immunization Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity: Occurs during pregnancy and during breast feeding ● Antibodies are passed from mother to child ● Provides protection from infancy to childhood Artificially Acquired Active Immunity: Build immunity via Vaccination Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity: Immunization given during an outbreak or emergency ● Quick, short lived protection ● Antibodies come from another person or animal Skeletal System Function: Movement, Protection, and Metabolism Bone: Hard calcified material that makes up the skeletal system ● Constantly being reorganized ● Synthesize blood and immune cells ● Stores calcium, phosphate, and lipids ● 4 Types: o Long Bones: long compact hollow shafts containing marrow ▪ Ends are spongy with air pockets ▪ EX) Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Tibia, Fibula o Short Bones: Wider than they are long ▪ EX) Metatarsals, Clavicle o Flat Bones: Not hollow, but contain marrow ▪ EX) Scapula, Ribs, Sternum o Irregular Bones: Nonsymmetrical shape ▪ EX) Skull, Knee, Elbow, Vertebra Ligament: Articulates BONE to BONE Tendon: Articulates MUSCLE to BONE Hyaline Cartilage: Covers articulating surface of bones ● Prevents bone on bone grinding Synovial Joint: Contain lubricating synovial fluid ● Pivot Joint: Neck ● Ball and Socket Joint: Hip ● Hinge Joint: Knee Osteocytes: Bone Cells ● Osteoclast: Multinucleate o Removes/absorbs bone tissue during growth and healing ● Osteoblast: Mononucleate o Cells that build bone Periosteum: Fibrous sheath that covers bone and contains nerve and blood vessels Osteon: Cylindrical structure that comprise, synthesize, and compact bone ● Composed of Calcium and phosphate rich Hydroxyapatite embedded in collagen matrix Collagen: Primary structural protein of connective tissue Canaliculi: Small channel or duct in ossified bone Cartilage: Tough, elastic connective tissue found in parts of the body (Ear) Haversian Canal: Channels in bone that contain BV and Nerves Lamellae: Layers of the bone, tissues, or cell walls Lining Cells: Flattened bone cells that come from osteoblasts Volkmann Canal: Channels in bone that transmit BV and communicate with Haversian Canals Bone Disease ● Osteoporosis: causes brittle, fragile bones ● Brittle Bone Disease: Group of Diseases that affect the collagen (defect in the matrix) and results in fragile bones ● Osteoarthritis: Degenerative joint disease ● Rheumatoid Arthritis: Progressive disease the causes joint inflammation and pain Cardiovascular/Circulatory System Function: Movement of blood and lymph around the body, which permits nutrient distribution, waste removal, communication, and protection ● Closed Double loop system o Pulmonary Loop: Deoxygenated blood from Rt. Ventricle to lungs and returns Oxygenated blood to Lt. Atrium o Systemic Loop: Oxygenated blood from Lt. Ventricle to body, returning Deoxygenated blood to Rt. Atrium ● Systole: Contraction of ventricles (heart expels blood) ● Diastole: Relaxation of ventricles (heart refills with blood) ● SA Node: "Pacemaker" controls contractions via electrical signals ● Blood Pressure: Fluid pressure generated by cardiac cycle (sys/dias) Artery: Blood vessel that carries blood AWAY from heart ● Aorta: large artery branching off heart to the rest of the body o Coronary Artery o Carotid Artery o Subclavian Artery o Common Iliac Artery o Renal Artery Vein: Blood vessel that carries blood TO the heart ● Vena Cava- All veins empty here prior to entering the heart o Jugular Vein o Subclavian Vein o Hepatic Portal Vein o Common Iliac Vein o Renal Vein Arteriole: Small artery Venule: Small vein Capillary: Small blood vessel that connects arterioles to venules Heart: Muscle that pumps blood throughout the body Blood: The red liquid that circulates in the arteries and veins ● Carries oxygen to and carbon dioxide from the tissues of the body. ● 4 Main Components: o RBC: Disc shaped cells that carry Hemoglobin and O2 o WBC: Immune defense o Platelets: Clotting cells o Plasma: Liquid portion of blood (mostly water) Disease: Myocardial Infarction: Heart attack; Death of the heart muscle due to inadequate blood supply Stroke: "Brain Attack." Damage to the brain due to inadequate blood supply Aneurysm: Localized abnormal, weak spot on a blood vessel wall that causes an outward bulging, likened to a bubble or balloon. Hemorrhage occurs when it bursts. Atherosclerosis: Narrowing of arteries due to plaque buildup on artery walls Anemia: Not enough healthy RBC Arrhythmia: Abnormal heart rhythm ● Tachycardia: Too fast ● Bradycardia: Too slow Hypertension: High blood pressure. Systole is over 140 mmHg; Diastole is over 90 mmHg Respiratory System Function: transporting O2 from the atmosphere into the body's cells and moving CO2 in the other direction. Lungs: 5 Lobes (2 left, 3 right). Main structure of respiratory system. Alveoli: Tiny air sacs; site of O2 and CO2 exchange. ● Occurs by diffusion (passive transport) Bronchi: The main passageways directly attached to the lungs Bronchiole: Small passages that connect bronchi to alveoli Trachea: Windpipe, connects Larynx to lungs Larynx: Voice box Pharynx: Located behind mouth, also part of GI system Diaphragm: Dome-shaped sheet of muscle and tendon that serves as the main muscle of respiration and plays a vital role in the breathing process Pleura: Membrane around lungs, inside chest cavity Perfusion: Passage of fluid to an organ or tissue Surfactant: A fluid secreted by alveoli; reduces surface tension- Prevent lung collapse Tidal Volume: The amount of air breathed in a normal inhalation or exhalation Ventilation: Movement of air in and out of body via inhalation and exhalation ● Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts downward, ribs push out, lungs fill with air ● Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes upward, ribs relax, air pushes out ● Hyperventilation: More CO2 than the body can produce (breathing out more than in) ● Hypoventilation: Breathing at an abnormally slow rate, resulting in an increased amount of carbon dioxide in the blood Neuromuscular System Function: Controls voluntary and involuntary movement. Nerve: Long bundles of axons that transmit signals from the CNS ● Electrical impulse from dendrite to axon terminal o Transmitted from cell to cell via neurotransmitters secreted into the synapse from the axon terminal Synapse: The structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands Neurotransmitter: A chemical substance that is released from the AXON TERMINAL by the arrival of a nerve impulse ● Diffuses across the SYNAPSE, ● causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure at the DENDRITE of the other cell o Acetylcholine: NT; causes muscle to contract o Dopamine: NT; precursor to epinephrine Central NS: Brain and Spinal Cord Peripheral NS: ● Sensory NS: AFFERENT; send messages TO CNS ● Motor NS: EFFERENT; send messages TO MUSCLES o Somatic NS: Carries information to CNS from senses, and from CNS to skeletal muscles o Autonomic NS: Involuntary; controls actions involving cardiac and smooth muscle ▪ Sympathetic NS: Arouses body; FIGHT or FLIGHT ▪ Parasympathetic NS: Calms body; Rest and Digest Brain: Control center ● 4 Lobes o Frontal Lobe: thinking, organizing, emotions, behavior, personality o Parietal Lobe: perception, making sense, arithmetic, spelling o Temporal: memory, understanding, language o Occipital: vision Brain Anatomy Cerebellum: Balance and coordination Cerebrum: Anterior brain Pons: Brainstem that links medulla and thalamus Medulla Oblongata: Control center for heart and lungs Brainstem: Contains the Pons, Medulla Oblongata, Midbrain Midbrain: Develops from the middle of the embryonic brain Thalamus: Relays sensory information; pain perception Hippocampus: Emotion, memory, ANS Amygdala: Emotions MUSCLES Myosin: THICK FILAMENT; fibrous protein; forms the contractile filaments of muscle cells Actin: THIN FILAMENT; protein involved in motion; works with myosin Sarcomere: Myofibril containing myosin and actin Smooth Muscle: Involuntary muscle, not striated ● Stomach, lung, intestine… Striated Muscle: Voluntary muscle; striated ● Biceps, triceps, gluteus maximus… Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary muscle; striated ● Heart BIOLOGY Macromolecules: Carbohydrate, Lipid, Nucleic Acid, Protein, Enzyme Carbohydrate: Sugars and starches which body breaks down to glucose ● Structural function: cellulose and chitin ● Energy storage: amylose, amylopectin, glycogen ● Recognition molecules: glycoproteins and glycolipids Lipids: Fatty acids and their derivatives that are soluble in water ● H and C and main components ● Fats ● Hydrophobic- thus help separate aqueous compartments ● Store energy (fats, oils, adipose) Protein: Molecules composed of amino acids joined by peptide bonds ● Monomer: amino acids (amino group + carboxylic acid)(20 types) ● Keratin and Collagen (hydrophobic)- not soluble in water, found in structural protein ● Globular proteins are hydrophilic (hemoglobin, antibodies, enzymes) ● Function as transport carries or signal transfer Nucleic Acids: Long molecules made of nucleotides; DNA and RNA ● DNA stores genetic material ● Chromosomes ● RNA is a messenger (mRNA) also rRNA and tRNA Enzymes: Class of protein that catalyze biochemical reactions ● Not consumed in reaction ● Speed up reaction by lowering activation energy ● Exergonic: release energy ● Endergonic: require energy ● Energy is supplied and released as ATP ● Lock and Key (substrate must fit into enzymes active site) DNA and RNA DNA: macromolecule that contains coded instructions for the body to produce proteins ● Nucleotide: the building block of DNA and RNA ● Nitrogenous Base: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine ● Purines: Adenine and Guanine ● Pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine ● Codon: A group of 3 nitrogenous bases used to synthesize amino acids (Synthesized from RNA during TRANSLATION) ● Hydrogen Bonds: Connect a Purine to a Pyrimidine (A-T) and (C-G). Non-covalent, weak. o RNA: Uracil replaces Thymine ● Double Helix structure ● Coded or read 5'→3' ● Sugar(pentose)-Phosphate backbone (deoxyribose and phosphate group- bound to 4 oxygen atoms) DNA Replication DNA Helicase: Unzips and Unwinds DNA strand DNA Primase: Generates RNA Primer. Act as a template for starting point of DNA Replication DNA Polymerase: Synthesize new DNA molecules by adding nucleotides to leading and lagging DNA strands in 5'→3' direction Topoisomerase: Prevents supercoiling DNA Ligase: Joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides Okazaki Fragment: Short, newly synthesized DNA fragments that are formed on the lagging strand Single Strand Binding Protein: Stabilize structure during replication Leading Strand: Replicated continuously in the 3' to 5' direction Lagging Strand: Replicated discontinuously in short sections Cellular Organelles and Structure Mitosis Meiosis CHEMISTRY States of Matter Solid: rock, wood, paper… ● Molecules are packed together in a tight, orderly pattern ● Vibrational motion, not translational motion ● Retains shape ● Retains density Liquid: water, juice, soda… ● Molecules are less ordered than solids, less tightly packed ● Vibrational and translational motion ● Shape is indefinite- takes shape of container ● Retains volume Gas: Oxygen, Methane, Carbon Dioxide… ● Molecules are rapidly moving and spread far apart ● Highly compressible- expands to fill container ● No definite shape ● No definite volume Change in Matter ● Condensation: Gas→ Liquid ● Deposition: Gas→ Solid ● Evaporation: Liquid→Gas ● Freezing: Liquid→ Solid ● Melting: Solid→Liquid ● Sublimation: Solid→Gas Boiling: The transition of liquid to gas when a substance has acquired enough thermal energy. Critical Point: The temperature at which LIQUID and GAS phases have same density. Phase Diagram: A graph of physical states of a substance under varying temperature and pressure. Triple Point: The temperature and pressure at which all 3 phases of a pure substance coexists. Chemical Bonds and Structures Covalent Bond: A chemical bond where electrons are SHARED between atoms (2 NON metals) Ionic Bond: Between 2 metals or a metal and a nonmetal. Complete TRANSFER of electrons Proton: positively charged atomic particle (determines atomic number) Electron: Negatively charged atomic particle- very small and irrelevant to mass of atom. Neutron: Determines isotope. Added to number protons to get atomic mass. No electric charge. Anion: Negatively charged ion Cation: Positively charged ion Atom: The most basic complete unit of an element SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY Scientific Method: I. Identify the problem II. Ask Questions (by conducting research) III. Develop Hypothesis (IF/THEN statement) IV. Conduct Experiment V. Analyze Results VI. Form a Conclusion Independent variable ● The thing you are testing ● "If" statement of the hypothesis ● Cause Dependent Variable ● The thing you are measuring ● "Then" statement of the hypothesis ● Effect Control Variable ● Scientific Constant ● Remains unchanged throughout the experiment *Must be able to replicate data for a successful experiment and must have a large sample [Show Less]
- Exam
- $10.45
- 0
- 594
Purchase the bundle to get the full access instantly
- 3 Million+ Study Documents
- 100% Money Back Guarantee
- Immediate Download Access
Add To Cart
Reviews 0
Bundle Details
$20.45
- Trusted by 800,000+ Students
- 24/7 Money Back Guarantee
- Download is directly available
315
0
Seller Details
Beginner
Reviews received
