1. Define spinal reflex and use an example from the body to illustrate a spinal reflex. (Page 446)
Spinal Reflex – when integration takes place in
... [Show More] the spinal cord gray matter
If you pick up something hot, the grasping muscles may relax and you may drop the hot object even before you are consciously aware of the extreme heat or pain. This is an example of a spinal cord reflex—a quick, automatic response to certain kinds of stimuli that involves neurons only in the spinal nerves and spinal cord.
2. Describe sleep and its major stages and then contrast sleep to coma - how are they similar and how do they differ. (Page 570)
Sleep is a state of altered consciousness or partial unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused
Coma is a state of unconsciousness in which a person has little or no response to stimuli
Alpha waves- stage 1 (drowsy)
Sleep Spindles – Stage 2 light sleep
Theta and delta waves – stags 3-4 deep sleep
Beta waves- fully awake eyes open
Brain Waves:
Alpha waves – awake and resting
Beta Waves – mental and sensory activity
Theta Waves – emotional distress
Delta Waves – Deep sleep in adults
2. Explain language usage and comprehension including a description of the two major language areas of the brain, where they are located and what they are specialized to accomplish, including what happens when damage occurs to either area.
Broca’s Area: Located in the frontal lobe left hemisphere, deals with speaking and understanding language that involve sensory association and motor areas at the cortex
Wernicke’s Area: Located in the left temporal & parietal lobes left hemisphere, interprets the meaning of speech by recognizing spoken words, translates words into thoughts
Damage to Broca’s: Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) means understand words but cannot speak your thoughts
Damage to Wernicke’s: Can speak but cannot arrange words in a coherent fashion
3. Compare and contrast the cochlea and the vestibular apparatus, discussing their anatomical and physiological differences.
The inner ear is divided into 2 categories: the cochlea and vestibular apparatus.
Cochlea – snail shape boney spinal canal makes 3 turns around a boney cord and divided into 3 channels
Vestibular apparatus – is the oval central portion of the boney labyrinth the membranous labyrinth in the vestibule consists of two sacs the utricle and saccule which are connected by a small duct coming from the vestibule are 3 boney semicircular canals
4. Explain the process of light reflecting off an object will pass through the eye. Include all relevant structures and indicate how the photon is transduced into an electrochemical signal in the brain. Include the major regions involved in visual transduction.
Light rays reflecting distant objects are focused on the retina after they passed through the cornea, aqueous humor, the lens, and vitreous humor. As light passes through the eye they experience refraction, which is the change in direction of light rays as they transition between different materials. Once the light rays are focused on the retina, the formed image is processed by photoreceptor cells called rods and cones. These photoreceptors relay the signal to the brain by the optic nerve.
6. Explain the control of estrogen and progesterone through the endocrine system.
FSH – stimulates follicular cells to secrete estrogen, which is the female sex hormone
Both FSH and LH stimulate secretion of estrogen by ovarian cells together estrogen and progesterone prepare uterus for implantation of fertilized ovum and help prepare mammary gland for milk secretion
7. Explain the process of calcium regulation in the body using the concepts of homeostasis and negative feedback
The parathyroid glad is the main regulator of calcium. PTH stimulates the release of calcium into the blood from the bones and causes the kidneys to retain calcium from urine and activate Vitamin D that aids in the retention of Ca. The thyroid gland makes calcitonin which removes calcium from the blood and puts it into the bones.
8. How is sugar regulated in the body (both up and down regulation of the molecule in the blood stream)
When the body does not convert enough glucose for use, blood sugar levels remain high. Insulin helps the body’s cells absorb glucose, lowering blood sugar and providing the cells with the glucose they need for energy. When blood sugar levels are too low the pancreas releases glucagon. Glucagon forces the liver to release stored glucose which causes the blood sugar to rise.
9. Discriminate between paracrine, autocrine, endocrine and exocrine secretions
Autocrine – Hormones that act on the cell that produced them.
Paracrine – Hormones are released from cells and bind to receptor on nearby cells and affects their function. Local hormones diffuse a short distance to other cells
Endocrine –Secret their hormones into the interstitial fluid surrounding secretory cells
Exocrine – Secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretion into body cavities into the lumen of an organ or the sweat glands and sebaceous glands, mucus and digestive glands
10. Describe each endocrine gland and describe the hormone(s) it secretes, the function(s) of the hormone(s) and how the endocrine gland is regulated.
Endocrine Gland Regulated by: Secretes
Pituitary:
Anterior Pituitary Hypothalamus Growth Hormone – cell growth
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone – Stimulates melanocytes
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone – Controls thyroid activity
Follicle- Stimulating Hormone – in males, stimulates testes to produce sperm; in females, initiates development of oocytes and induces ovarian secretion of estrogens
Prolactin – promotes milk production of mammary glands
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone- increased release of hormone from adrenal cortex
Anterior Pituitary Hypothalamus Antidiuretic Hormone – conserves body water by decreasing urine
Oxytocin – stimulating contraction of smooth muscle cell during childbirth
Thyroid Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone T3/T4 – Helps with metabolism
Calcitonin – decrease blood calcium
Parathyroid Blood Calcium Level Parathyroid Hormone – Increases blood calcium
Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Cortex Blood Pressure/ Blood Volume Aldosterone – Increase of Sodium and H2O
Cortisol – Anti-inflammatory
Adrenal Medulla Brain Epinephrine & Norepinephrine – fight or flight
Pinal Gland Serotonin Melatonin – contributes to the setting of the bodies biological clock
Pituitary Gland – is a pea shaped structure that attaches to the hypothalamus by a stalk called the infundibulum and has 2 separate portions the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary.
Growth Hormone – promotes growth of body tissues and regulates certain aspects of metabolism
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) – stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by thyroid gland
Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) – in females, initiates development of oocytes and induces ovarian secretion of estrogens. In males, stimulates testes to produce sperm
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)- In females, stimulates secretion of estrogens and progesterone, ovulation, and formation of corpus luteum. In males, stimulates testes to produce testosterone
Prolactin (PRL) – together with other hormones promotes milk production by mammary glands
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) – Stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids by adrenal cortex
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH) – Exact role in humans in unknown but many influence brain activity; when present in excess can cause darkening of skin
Oxytocin (OT)- Stimulates contraction of smooth muscle cells of uterus during childbirth; stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells in mammary glands to cause milk ejection
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) – Conserves body water by decreasing urine volume; decreases water loss through perspiration ; raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles
Thyroid Gland – butterfly shaped located inferior to the larynx and is composed of right and left lateral lobes
T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) or thyroid hormones – increase basal metabolic rate; stimulate synthesis of proteins; increase use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production; increase lipolysis; enhance cholesterol excretion; accelerate body growth; contribute to development of nervous system
Parathyroid Glands – on the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland are small round masses of tissue called parathyroid glands one superior and one inferior are attached to each lateral lobe
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)- Increases calcium (Ca2+ ) and Magnesium (Mg2+) levels and decreases blood phosphate (HPO42-) level; increases bone resorption by osteoclasts; increases Ca2+ reabsorption and phosphate excretion by kidneys; promotes formation of calcitriol which increases rate of dietary Ca2+ and Mg2+ absorption
Adrenal Glands- lie superior to each kidney in the retroperitoneal space and have a flattened pyramid shape
Mineralocorticoids – increase blood levels of Na+ and water; decrease blood level of K+
Glucocorticoids – Increase protein breakdown, stimulate gluconeogenesis and lipolysis, provide resistance to stress, dampen inflammation, depress immune responses
Androgens – Assist in early growth of axillary and pubic hair in both sexes; in females, contribute to libido and are source of estrogens after menopause
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine – enhance effects of sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system (ANS) during stress
Pancreas – a flattened organ, located in the curve of the duodenum, this first part of the small intestine and consists of a head, body, and tail
Glucagon – raises blood glucose level by accelerating breakdown of glycogen into glucose in liver, converting other nutrients into glucose in liver and releasing glucose into blood
Insulin – Lowers blood glucose level by accelerating transport of glucose into cells, converting glucose into glycogen and decreasing glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; increases lipogenesis and stimulates protein synthesis [Show Less]