Summary ATI TEAS 7 ALL SECTIONS PREP: Complete A+ Score Guide; Latest Updated. Anatomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body. Microscopic
... [Show More] Anatomy: examines cells and molecules. Cytology: study of cells. Histology: study of tissues. Physiology: is the study of functions of anatomical structures. *Smallest living is a CELL. *Smallest organisms is a ATOM. Levels of Hierarchy Atom- the most basic complete unit of an element. Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. Organelles- are cells parts that function within a cell. Cells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual cell. Tissues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs. Organ- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two or more similar tissues. Organ System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body: circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular and nervous. Humans have 11 Organ Systems. Cells Structure • Nucleus- holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin • Ribosomes- small structures that build proteins “amino acids”. • Golgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell. • Vacuoles- storage, digestion and waste removal. • Cytoskeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape/support cell. • Microtubules- part of the cytoskeletal. • Cytosol- liquid material in cell. • Cell membrane- separate internal and external cellular environment allows material to enter and exit cell. • Endoplasmic Reticulum- smooth or rough transport system of the cell. • Mitochondria- generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular respiration Animal Cells Centrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis. Centriole- cylinders involved in cellular division. Lysosomes- the purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or break down the cell when it dies. Cilia- cause cell to move. Flagella- whip tail to move cell. TISSUES: ⟶ Group of CELLS. ⟶ Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective. 1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin 2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, Lymph. It protects and binds body parts. a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support ⟶ Fibrous b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and defends against disease. c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells 3. Muscle: supports and move body Smooth Cardiac Skeletal 4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons: control responses to changes in environment. Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Interphase - Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material. Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form. Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle structure. Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes. Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched. Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell. Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two. Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction. Gametes in female = Egg Gametes in Male = Sperm Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote. Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction. 1. Respiratory System • main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction. Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum. External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the entrances into the nasal cavity The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production. Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus. Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation. Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs. • Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse. Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs. Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively. Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch – an indentation for the heart’s apex. The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement. • Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface. • Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall. • Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together. Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue. Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body. • Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs. • Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs. Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing. Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal. Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal. Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse. Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH. Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing. Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections. 2. Cardiovascular System Hear t • Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity. • Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system • Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex points to left hip. Heart Coverings • Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits. Heart Layers • Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium. • Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective tissue forming the fibrous skeleton. • Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers. 4 chambers: 2 Atria, 2 Ventricles Atria- the superior chambers, ear like extensions of the atria, receiving chambers limited pumping means thin walls. Ventricles- the inferior chambers, majority of heart volume, pumping chambers thick walls. Sulci – the indentations on the outer heart surface, correspond between chambers contains fats and vessels. Septa- the internal walls that divide the chambers. Right Atrium • Superior Vena Cava- blood returning from above the diaphragm. • Inferior Vena Cava - blood returning from below the diaphragm. • Coronary Sinus- blood returning from the heart wall. Left Atrium • 4 pulmonary veins- blood returning from lungs. Right Ventricle • Receives blood from the right atrium. • Blood exits into the pulmonary trunk to lungs. Left Ventricle • Receives blood from the left atrium • Blood exits into the aorta to the body. **Blood only pass through ½ of the heart at a time, and therefore must pass through the heart twice to complete circulation. Pulmonary Circuit • The pathway from the heart to the lungs and back. • Is pumped by the right half of the heart • Blood leaves –O2 and returns +O2 Systemic Circuit • The pathway from the heart to the body’s tissues and back • Is pumped by the left half of the heart • Blood leaves +O2 and returns –O2 CIRCULATION Superior & Inferior Vena Cava --- Right Atrium- Tricuspid Valve- Right Ventricle -- Pulmonary Semi Lunar Valve-- Pulmonary Trunk -- Lungs- Heart- Four Pulmonary Veins---- Left Atrium --- Mitral Valve-- Left Ventricle- Aortic Semilunar Valve-- Aorta Coronary Circulation- the series of vessels that supply blood flow to the wall of the heart and beginning at the aorta and ending at the right atrium. Atrioventricular Valves • Separate an atrium from a ventricle. • Prevent backflow into the atrium Tricuspid Valve – separates right atrium from right ventricle Bicuspid Valve – separates left atrium from left ventricle. Also, known as mitral valve. Sinoatrial Node- in the right atrium, the “pacemaker” whose cells generate the sinus rhythm. Heart Sounds- the “lub” and “dub” • Lub- the sound produced by the closure of the AV valves. (mitral and tricuspid valves) • Dub- the sound of produced by the closure of the semilunar valves. Systole- the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood “contraction” Diastole- The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood “relaxation” Cardiac Cells • Large amount of mitochondria for endurance • Generate electrical impulses. • Interconnected- fibers are linked and work in unison. Arteries- blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body. Veins- blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Bloo d • Connective tissue • pH- 7.35-7.45 • Volume- 4-6L Functions- Transport of hormones gases and nutrients, etc. Regulation of pH, body temp and water balance. Protection from blood loss and infection. Plasma – liquid component of blood composed of water, plasma proteins and non-protein solutes. Erythrocytes- red blood cells lack nucleus, functions of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Leukocytes- white blood cells Thrombocytes- platelets Hemoglobin- protein composing 97% of RBC volume. • Globin- amino acid based portion with 2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains • Heme- pigment portion with a central iron atom. 4 (one per globin chain) Hematopoiesis- blood cell formation occurs in the bone marrow. Leukocytes- white blood cells, possess nuclei and organelles, function is to provide immune responses. T-cells – target virally infected cells. B-cells- make antibodies. Lymphatic System - Series of vessels, tissues and organs performing 2 major functions: • Vessels return to the blood any fluids and proteins that leaked into tissues. • Tissues and organs house cells for immune functioning. Lymphatic vessels – the series of vessels draining lymph, returning it to the blood in a unidirectional flow. Lymphoid cells • Lymphocytes – the T cells and B cells that fight disease-causing pathogens. • Plasma cells – specialized B cells that produce antibodies. [Show Less]