(3) phonological awareness
-the knowledge that oral English is composed of smaller units
-a child who has phonological awareness can identify and
... [Show More] manipulate sounds in many different levels of language:
1. individual sounds (phonemic awareness)
2. sounds in larger units of language, such as words and syllables
(3) phonemic awareness
-a subcategory of phonological awareness involving the ability to distinguish the separate phonemes (sounds) in a spoken word
-e.g. a phonemically aware child can identify "duck" and "luck" as rhyming words or say that "duck" has 3 sounds and they are /d/, /u/, and /k/
-developing phonemic awareness is an important goal for K-1 teachers
(3) phonics
-knowledge of letter-sound correspondences, e.g. knowing that in the word "phonics" the letters "ph" make the /f/ sound
-often called graphophonic or graphophonemic relationships
(3) the alphabetic principle
-speech sounds are represented by letters
-English is an alphabetic language because symbols represent sounds
-the sounds are called phonemes
-a child who has not acquired alphabetic principle would have little idea what purpose letters serve
-instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, and spelling all reinforce alphabetic principle
(3) phoneme
-a speech sound in a language that signals a difference in meaning
-the smallest units of speech
-e.g. /v/ and /b/ are English phonemes because there is a difference between "vote" and "boat"
(3) the phonetic alphabet
-created by linguists so that each phoneme is always represented by the same symbol
-there is one-to-one correspondence between the phoneme and the symbol
-e.g. the phonemic symbol /a/ always represents the "long a" sound
(3) graphemes
-the English letter or letters that represent phonemes
-e.g. the phonemic symbol /a/ can be represented by several graphemes, such as the "ay" in "say," the "ei" in "neighborhood," or the "ey" in "prey"
-some graphemes are a single letter, e.g. the phoneme /b/ in "bat" is represented by the grapheme "b"
-other graphemes consist of more than one letter, e.g. the phoneme /k/ in "duck" is represented by the grapheme "ck"
(3) vowels
-sounds made when the air leaving your lungs is vibrated in the voice box and there is a clear passage from the voice box to your mouth
-a, e, i, o, u
-sometimes y, in words such as "sky"
-sometimes w, in words such as "cow"
-long vowels "say their own name," as in "bake" and "bite"
-short vowels occur in words such as "cat" and "pet"
-R-controlled
-L-controlled
(3) consonants
speech sounds that occur when the airflow is obstructed in some way by your mouth, teeth, or lips
(3) onsets and rimes
-occur in a single syllable
-onset is the initial consonant sound or consonant blend
-rime is the vowel sound and any consonants that follow
-all syllables must have a rime
-a syllable may or may not have an onset
-e.g. napkin: onset in "nap" is "n," rime is "ap"; onset in "kin is "k," rime is "in"
(3) phonograms
-rimes that have the same spelling
-words that share the same phonogram are word families
-e.g. rime/phonogram: "at"; word family: "cat, bat, sat"
(3) role of phonological and phonemic awareness in reading development
-acquisition of phonemic awareness is highly predictive of success in learning to read
-level of a child's phonemic awareness in kindergarten correlates strongly with his/her level of reading achievement (word recognition and comprehension) at the end of 1st grade
-phonemic awareness is the foundation for understanding the sound-symbol relationships of English, which will be taught through phonics lessons
(3) HOW TO TEACH PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS, INCLUDING PHONEMIC AWARENESS
How to teach phonological awareness of larger units of language:
-word awareness
-syllable awareness
-word blending
-syllable blending
-onset and rime blending
How to teach phonemic awareness:
-sound isolation
-sound identity
-sound blending
-sound substitution
-sound deletion
-sound segmentation
(3) word awareness
-goal: to help children become aware that sentences are made up of words
-requires children to detect and identify word boundaries (e.g. that the sentence "I like ice cream" has 4 words)
-lessons should use 1-, 2-, and 3-word sentences (?), each word with one syllable (e.g. "Tom runs" - students read sentence as a whole, then each words separately, then another word is added: "Tom runs fast" OR more challenging task = teacher says a 2-, 3-, or 4- word sentence and asks students to identify how many words are in the sentence)
(3) syllable awareness
-more difficult than word awareness because syllables are meaningless by themselves
-syllable awareness activity: students clap their hands as they say each syllable in a 2- or 3- syllable word
-syllable awareness activities are easier if pronunciation of the syllables is distorted and they are uttered slowly and distinctly
(3) word blending
-child is challenged to take 2 single-syllable words and combine them to make a compound word
-pictures can be used, e.g. show a picture of a cow and a picture of a boy, ask what you get when you put "cow" and "boy" together, show a picture of a cowboy
(3) syllable blending
-children are required to blend two syllables into a word
-e.g. ask what word you get if you put "sis" and "ter" together ("sister")
(3) onset and rime blending
teacher says onset, such as /b/, and rime, such as /ank/; children have to put them together and say "bank"
(3) points to remember about the direct teaching of phonemic awareness
-instructional activities focusing on phonological awareness of larger units of language, such as words and syllables, should take place before instruction in phonemic awareness
-it is better to focus on 1 or 2 phonemic awareness tasks at a time rather than working on several of them simultaneously
it is a good idea to plan some phonemic awareness activities that involve the use of the letters of the alphabet (helps children see relationship between phonemic awareness and reading)
-phonemic awareness instruction should be brief and not exceed 30 mins for any one lesson
(3) sound isolation
-children are given a word and asked to tell which sound occurs at the beginning, middle, or end of the word
-it is best to start with beginning sounds, then go on to ending sounds, then to medial sounds
(3) sound identity
use sets of words that share the same beginning, middle, or ending sound but have no other shared sounds; ask children to identify the shared sound
(3) sound blending
teacher says the sounds of a word with only brief pauses in between each sound; children guess the word (e.g. say "/b/ /a/ /t/," children guess "bat")
(3) sound substitution
-teacher asks children to substitute one sound for another
-e.g. one-word substitutions: "cat," substitute the /b/ sound for the /k/ sound, "bat"
-e.g. alliterations with same consonant sounds: "be, bo, ba, bu, bi," substitute /k/ for /b/, "ke, ko, ka, ku, ki"
(3) sound deletion
-works best with consonant blends
-to avoid using nonsense words, identify words beginning with blends that will generate a new word if one sound is deleted (e.g. "block," take away /b/ to get "lock" as opposed to "frog," take away the /f/ to get "rog")
(3) sound segmentation
-most difficult phonemic awareness task
-children are challenged to isolate and identify the sounds in a spoken word
-teacher should start with words with only 2 sounds, e.g. "bee, /b/ /e/") and then move on to 3-sound words
-challenges children to segment words with minimal differences, e.g. "cap," "cat," and "cab"
-if children are having difficulty, simplify the challenge by asking how many sounds are in a word the teacher pronounces
(3) relationship between phonemic awareness and development of phonics knowledge and skills
-development of phonemic awareness is a prerequisite to teaching phonics because children cannot be expected to learn which letters represent which sounds (phonics) until they are aware of the sounds in a word (phonemic awareness)
-doesn't mean students participate in phonemic awareness activities and then move on to phonics lessons at a later time; although some phonemic awareness lessons will precede instruction in letter-sound correspondences, other phonemic awareness activities will take place at the same time as phonics lessons
(3) MEETING THE NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS: struggling readers and students with reading difficulties or disabilities
-focus on key skills, especially blending and segmenting
-reteach skills that are lacking
---slow the pace of the lesson
---change mode of delivery by more modeling or using clues
---make task simpler by providing additional scaffolding
----use different materials
-use a variety of concrete examples to explain a concept or task
-provide additional practice
(3) MEETING THE NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS: English learners and speakers of nonstandard English
-explicitly teach nontransferrable phonemes (English phonemes that do not exist in an EL's first language)
-explicitly teach sequences of phonemes in English that do not appear in the first language
(3) MEETING THE NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS: advanced learners
-increase the pace of instruction
---spend less time on a lesson by providing less modeling and fewer chances to practice the skill
---devote fewer lessons to a phonemic awareness skill
-build on and extend current skills
(3) ASSESSMENT OF PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS, INCLUDING PHONEMIC AWARENESS
-auditory discrimination tests: tests of phonological awareness, including phonemic awareness, in which teacher talks, student listens, and student says something (no print is involved)
-Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation: teacher says 22 words, child must provide each sound of the word in order
-Assess phonological awareness tasks: word awareness, syllable awareness, word blends, syllable blending, onset-rime blending
-Assess phonemic awareness tasks: sound identity, sound isolation, sound blending, sound deletion, sound substitution, sound segmentation
-should include entry-level assessment, progress-monitoring assessment (middle of lesson AND middle of unit), and summative assessment
(4) letter recognition
-the ability to identify both the uppercase and lowercase letters when a teacher says the name of the letter
-the clue is auditory and the child's action is physical
-refers to names of letters, not sounds letters make
(4) letter naming
-the ability to say the name of a letter when the teacher points to it
-refers to names of letters, not sounds letters make
(4) letter formation
-also called letter production
-the ability to write the uppercase and lowercase letters legibly
(4) CONCEPTS ABOUT PRINT: what are they
-the relationship between spoken and written English and that print carries meaning
-recognizing letter, word, and sentence representation
-directionality of print/tracking of print
-book-handling skills
(4) the relationship between spoken and written English and that print carries meaning
-children should be aware that printed words are "talk written down," e.g. spoken word "cat" and printed word "cat" are the same thing
-printed words are used to transmit messages as in the stories in picture books, product names in advertisements, and menus in restaurants (although illustrations in picture book help tell a story, children should acquire the concept that printed words ARE the story)
(4) recognizing letter, word, and sentence representation
-knowledge of the differences between letters, words, and sentences
-to fully acquire this concept, children must know how many letters in a word and know word boundaries (how many words are in a line of text)
-children must know where sentences end and begin, which requires recognition of end punctuation
(4) directionality of print/tracking print
-knowledge that English is read left to right and top to bottom
-tracking is the physical, observable evidence that this concept has been learned, as the child is able to point to the next word that should be read
-children understand that they must perform a return sweep at the end of each line of text (moving from the far right of one line to the far left of the next one)
(4) book-handling skills
knowledge of:
-how to hold a book when reading
-where the front cover of a book is
-where the title page is
-where the story starts
-when and how to turn the pages
-the location of the back cover of the book
(4) CONCEPTS ABOUT PRINT: how to teach
-reading aloud to students
-the shared book experience
-language experience approach (LEA)
-environmental print
-print-rich environment
-explicit (direct) teaching of concepts about print
(4) shared book experience
-goals: to discover good books, to see that reading is fun, and to teach concepts about print
-use big books (oversize picture books measuring at least 15x23 inches) - print is large and can be seen from several feet away; usually include predictable phrases or words
components:
-introduction (prereading): look at cover, point out features of the book, ask what they think book will be about or other predictive question
-teacher reads story, students join in on predictable text; may pause to encourage predictions or comments
-discussion before, during, or after reading: children ask questions or discuss favorite parts/characters
-reread on subsequent days: with whole group, small groups, pairs, or individuals
(4) language experience approach (LEA)
-children share an experience and dictate an account of that experience to an adult, who records it verbatim
-LEA should record a personal, memorable experience (e.g. a field trip to the zoo) that provides child with a great deal to dictate
-adult and child read the dictated text together
(4) environmental print
printed messages that people encounter in ordinary, daily living, e.g. milk cartons, menus, t-shirts
(4) print-rich environment
plenty of examples of written language on display; children can "read the room"
create by:
-labeling classroom items and captioning bulletin board displays
-morning message, an overview of the day's activities
-classroom mailboxes/cubbies which can be used to hold messages for students to write to their classmates and the teacher to write to students
(4) THE IMPORTANCE OF LETTER RECOGNITION IN READING DEVELOPMENT AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: how to teach letter recognition, letter naming, and letter formation
-associating names and things with letters
-singing the alphabet
-abc books
-practice writing both uppercase and lowercase letters and writing words
-tactile and kinesthetic methods
(4) phonetic spelling
-when a child writes a word but doesn't know the accurate spelling
-also called temporary spelling/invented spelling
-result = some sounds may have no letter, other sounds in a word will be represented by the wrong letters
-should be encouraged: 1) overemphasis on correctness will discourage some children from writing, 2) provides important assessment data on a child's knowledge of letter-sound correspondences
-should always coexist with formal spelling instruction that leads to correctness
-the older children are, the less their spelling should be phonetic and the more it should be accurate
(4) MEETING THE NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS: struggling readers and students with reading difficulties or disabilities
-focus on key concepts and skills
-reteach concepts, letters, and skills that are lacking
-use a variety of concrete examples to explain a concept or task
-provide extra practice
-use visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile techniques
(4) MEETING THE NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS: English learners and speakers of nonstandard English
-capitalize on the transfer of relevant knowledge and skills from their primary language
-recognize that not all languages are alphabetic and that key features of alphabets vary, including letters, directionality, and phonetic regularity
(4) MEETING THE NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS: advanced learners
-increase the pace of instruction
-build on and extend current knowledge and skills
e.g. challenge idea: have students learn about other orthographies; learn the differences among the alphabets while understanding that their common purpose is to transmit messages
(4) ASSESSMENT OF CONCEPTS ABOUT PRINT, LETTER RECOGNITION, AND THE ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE
-formal and informal assessments
-entry-level, monitoring of progress, and summative assessments
-analysis and interpretation of assessment results should be based on standards
-analysis and interpretation must go further to determine why children are performing below expectations
-teachers should use results to create standards-based individual profiles for each student
-teachers should use results to create standards-based class profiles
(4) formal and informal assessments of concepts about print
formal:
-tests provided by basal reading system the school district has adopted
-Clay's Concepts About Print test:
---books have some pages with print upside down, reversed letters, and some lines of print in odd configurations
---teacher asks student to point to front of book, identify where to begin reading, recognize beginning and end of a word
---measures book orientation, directionality, beginning and ending of a story, word sequence, and recognition of punctuation and capital letters
informal
-use any picture book, paper and pencil
-observation of student behavior
-checklist
-ask child to write something (checking for letters rather than squiggles), how many words are in a line, to track as you read, etc.
(4) formal and informal assessment of letter recognition, letter naming, and letter formation
-letter recognition: you name the letter, child points to it
-letter naming: you point to a letter, child names it
-letter formation: child can form a letter legibly when writing, in isolation but in esp. context (gather student writing samples)
(4) formal and informal assessment of the alphabetic principle
-observe children read aloud and write
-if they try to sound out words, struggle with finding the right sound for a letter, then they have mastered the alphabetic principle
-likewise, when children write and struggle with choosing the correct letter for a sound, they are demonstrating they understand the relationship between letters and sound in printed English
(5) word identification
the ability to read aloud, or decode, words correctly
(5) word recognition
making a connection between the word being pronounced and its meaning
(5) sight words
-children should be taught to identify some words as whole units without breaking the word down by phonics or morphology
types of words that should be taught as sight words:
-high-frequency words (as, the, of)
-words with irregular spelling (dove, great)
-words that children want to know, usually because they want to use them in their writing (dinosaur, Burger King)
-words that are introduced in content-area lessons in social studies and science (insect, butterfly)
(5) morphology
-the study of word formation
-children use morphological clues to identify words when they rely on root words, prefixes, and suffixes
(5) context clues
when children use the context of the sentence or paragraph to figure out an unknown word
(5) THE ROLE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORDS IN WORD IDENTIFICATION: how word identification contributes to word recognition
when children learn to identify in print words that exist in their oral vocabulary, they increase the number of words that they recognize; this is the process of associating the correct printed form to a known word
(5) THE ROLE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORDS IN WORD IDENTIFICATION: how automaticity in word recognition leads to fluency and comprehension
-goal is for all students to achieve automaticity in word identification and word recognition
-child achieves automaticity when word identification is swift and accurate
-automaticity is essential for fluent reading (reading at an appropriate pace with appropriate expression); a student who is stumbling over words will not achieve fluency
-fluency is essential for reading comprehension; slow, struggling readers often lose track of the meaning of what they are reading
(5) THE SEQUENCE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORD INSTRUCTION: types of consonant sounds
-continuous sounds
-stop sounds
(5) continuous sounds
-it is possible to "hold" the sound and stretch it out
-when in the initial position in a word: f, l, m, n, r, s, v, z
(5) stop sounds
-the sound must be uttered quickly with a "quick" puff of air
-also called clipped consonant sounds
-when in the initial position in a word: b, c, d, g, j, k, p, qu, t
(5) THE SEQUENCE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORD INSTRUCTION: common, regular letter combinations
-consonant digraphs
-consonant blends
-vowel digraphs
-diphthongs
-r-controlled vowels
-l-controlled vowels
(5) consonant digraphs
2-letter combinations that make one sound; e.g. "ph" in "phone," "sh" in "share"
*"ph" in digraph
(5) consonant blends
2- or 3-letter combinations, said rapidly, and each letter in a blend makes a sound; e.g. "pl" in"play," "spr" in "spring"
*"bl" in blend
(5) vowel digraphs
2-vowel combinations that make a single sound; e.g. "oa" in "boat" makes the long o sound; "ea" in "teach" makes the long e sound
(5) diphthongs
-glided sounds made by such vowel combinations as "oi" in "oil" and "oy" in "boy"
-when pronouncing a diphthong, the tongue starts in one position and rapidly moves to another
(5) R-controlled vowels
neither long nor short, e.g. the sound "a" makes in "car," "e" makes in "her," "i" makes in "girl," "u" makes in "hurt," and "o" makes in "for"
(5) L-controlled vowels
neither long nor short, e.g. the sound "a" makes in "chalk," "e" makes in "help," "i" makes in "milk," "o" makes in "cold," and "u" makes in "bull"
(5) THE SEQUENCE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORD INSTRUCTION: common, inflected morphological units taught as part of phonics instruction
-morphological units include prefixes, suffixes, and words without prefixes and suffixes
-inflected morphological units are suffixes that do not change the part of speech of the root word (e.g. "walk" and "walked" both verbs; "big" and "bigger" both adjectives")
-frequently used inflected suffixes: -ed, -er, -est, -ing, -s
-children should be taught how they change the meaning of the root words they are attached to
(5) THE SEQUENCE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORD INSTRUCTION: common word patterns of increasing difficulty
-VC
-CVC
-CVCC
-CCVC
-CVVC
-CVCe
(5) VC
-vowel is short
-e.g. "am," "it," "up"
-irregular exception: "to"
(5) CVC
-medial vowel is short
-e.g. "man," "pet," "lip," "tot," "bum"
(5) CVCC
-vowel is short
-e.g. "balk," "cost," "film"
-it will confuse children to include words that end with a consonant digraph, where the final two consonants make only one sound, such as "bath" and "fish"
(5) CCVC
-most words start with a consonant blend
-e.g. "brat," "clap," "skip"
-vowel is short
(5) CVVC
-many but not all words in this pattern have vowel digraphs (two vowels, one sound; first vowel says its name)
-e.g. "bait," "team," "goat"
(5) CVCe
-long vowel sound
-e.g. "made," "like," "cone," "huge,"
-irregular exceptions: "love," "live"
(5) THE SEQUENCE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORD INSTRUCTION: common syllable patterns and syllabication as applied to decoding multisyllabic words
1. compound words, divide between the words: "in-side," "foot-ball"
2. single-syllable prefix, divide between the prefix and the root: "un-kind," "pre-test"
3. never divide a consonant digraph: "bush-el," "teach-er"
4. 2 consonants in the middle of a word that are not digraphs, divide between the consonants: "sis-ter," "but-ter"
5. single consonant in the middle of a word between 2 vowels, the vowel preceding the consonant is short, divide after the consonant: "cab-in," "lev-el"
6. single consonant in the middle of a word between two vowels, the vowel preceding the consonant is long, divide before the consonant: "be-long," "fe-ver"
(5) why some words are phonetically irregular and never decodable
-e.g. "of," "the," "was"
-because of the etymology (word origins); they reflect the spelling of another language
-because of pronunciation shifts in English over hundreds of years
(5) THE SEQUENCE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORD INSTRUCTION: how and when irregular words fit into the continuum of phonics instruction
-many of them must be taught as sight words in K-2
-sight words taught as a whole "unit" so students do not need to decode them by applying knowledge of phonics
-many irregular, high-frequency words are neither nouns, verbs, nor adjectives, but rather they are function words with no clear meaning: prepositions, pronouns, or conjunctions
(5) THE SEQUENCE OF PHONICS AND SIGHT WORD INSTRUCTION: why some decodable words must be taught as sight words until their phonetic pattern has been taught
-they are high frequency words children need to know early on
-some sound-symbol relationship in the word will not be taught until much later (e.g. "park" - many young children will want to use it in writing, but the r-controlled "a" may not be taught until 2nd grade)
(5) THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PHONICS DEVELOPMENT AND STAGES OF SPELLING DEVELOPMENT: stages of spelling development
-precommunicative
-semiphonetic
-phonetic
-transitional
-conventional
(5) precommunicative
-child shows no understanding of alphabetic principle (that letters represent sounds)
-child "writes" by drawing pictures or making squiggles
-if letters appear, they are randomly assigned
-e.g. "my dad's new car" = "aaLLo Sbav"
(5) semiphonetic
-child attempts to use letters to represent sounds
-child's knowledge of sound-symbol relationships is poorly developed
-child often does not write at least one letter for each sound in a word (some sounds in words are not represented)
-e.g. "banana" = "baa"
-should be encouraged to write even though they make mistakes; teachers should simultaneously work to improve child's spelling and expect that correctness will increase as child gets older
(5) phonetic
-child knows that letters represent sounds and at least one letter represents each sound in a word
-child many times does not choose the right letter or combination of letters to represent sounds
-e.g. "I like to fly a kite" = "I lik two flii a kitt"
-should be encouraged to write even though they make mistakes; teachers should simultaneously work to improve child's spelling and expect that correctness will increase as child gets older
(5) transitional
-child knows most of the orthographic patterns of English
-all sounds have letters and for the most part, child chooses correct letter or combination of letters to represent sounds
-mistakes frequently occur with sounds that have several spellings, such as the long a (e.g. "nayborhood")
-transitional spelling easy to read
-e.g. "The firefiters have to be able to climb up the sides of bildings"
(5) conventional
-child spells almost all words correctly
-only mistakes occur when child tries to spell new words with irregular spelling
-children at this level generally recognize that a word they have spelled "doesn't look right"
(5) THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PHONICS DEVELOPMENT AND STAGES OF SPELLING DEVELOPMENT: the relationships among phonics knowledge, spelling development, and decoding skills
-effective phonics instruction makes children better spellers
-orthographic patterns = the frequently occurring letter combinations of English spelling (e.g. the rime "-ight," the suffix "-tion")
-phonics instruction helps children learn these patterns
-reverse is true: spelling instruction that focuses on common orthographic patterns will help children decode words (e.g. a child who knows how to pronounce the "-ight" rime will be able to both orally decode words with that rime when reading aloud and encode the word when writing)
(5) THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PHONICS DEVELOPMENT AND STAGES OF SPELLING DEVELOPMENT: the relationship between spelling development and vocabulary development
-spelling instruction usually focuses on both how to spell a word and what the word means
-effective spelling instruction will sometimes select words that share a common prefix or root; as children learn to spell the words, they will also learn their meanings (e.g. root "micro": "microwave," "microscope," "microphone")
(5) THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PHONICS DEVELOPMENT AND STAGES OF SPELLING DEVELOPMENT: writing activities provide opportunities for applying phonics knowledge
-teachers will see which sound-symbol relationships students have mastered when they write
-phonics knowledge can be revealed both when students decode printed text while they read aloud and when they encode printed text while they write
(6) THE FUNDAMENTALS OF TEACHING PHONICS
-instruction should be systematic
-instruction should be direct and explicit
direct, explicit approaches:
-whole-to-part lessons
-part-to-whole lessons
other approaches (NOT direct and explicit):
-analogy phonics
-embedded phonics
-practice, practice, practice
(6) whole-to-part lessons
-also called analytic phonics
-start with sentences, then look at words, and end up with the sound-symbol relationship that is the focus of the lesson
e.g. lesson on "sh" digraph would have a set of sentences such as:
-My mom went to the bank and came home with a lot of cash.
-We went to the market and bought some fish and potatoes.
-I helped her mash the potatoes.
-After dinner, my brother Fred broke a dish.
-look at words "cash," "fish," "mash," "dish," notice what they have in common, focus on "sh" sound-symbol relationship
(6) part-to-whole lessons
-also called synthetic phonics
-begin with the sound and then children blend the sounds to build words
e.g. start with "sh" digraph, practice saying aloud
-show letter combinations that can be added to the sound to make words (e.g. "ca," "fi," "ma," "di,")
-blend sounds to make words
(6) analogy phonics
-students are taught unfamiliar words by comparing them to known words, usually with onsets and rimes
-e.g. children learning "brick" are first showed 2 simpler words with "-ick" rime, "kick," and "trick"; teacher then introduces "br" blend and children combine it with the familiar "-ick"
(6) embedded phonics
-teaching phonics incidentally as something that is not the central focus of the lesson
-e.g. reading aloud a picture book, then working on a rime that appears in the title of the story by having students generate rhyming words
(6) practice, practice, practice
-after students have been taught sound-symbol relationships and have practiced associating sounds to a letter or group of letters in isolation, they should have opportunities to read the sounds in the context of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs
-e.g. teacher models correct oral reading, students read texts subvocally (reading aloud, moving the lips and tongue, but making no sound), then students read texts aloud normally
(6) SYSTEMATIC, EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION IN PHONICS AT THE BEGINNING STAGE
-teach sounding out and blending of regular VC and CVC words
-teach whole-word reading of single-syllable, regular words and some high-frequency, irregular sight words
-use decodable text for practice
-teach students to use phonics knowledge to spell VC and CVC words
(6) how to teach sounding out and blending of regular VC and CVC words
-start by teaching children to sound out the separate sounds in VC and CVC words
-display letter that represents the sound and have children voice the sound
-after each sound in a word has been displayed and voiced, the children then "blend" the 2 or 3 sounds together (teacher should model)
-follows part-to-whole approach
(6) how to use decodable text
-stories written in decodable text have highly controlled vocabulary
-words are selected because they have the phonics elements and the sight words children have been previously taught
-most preprimer (early K), primer (late K), and 1st grade basal readers consist of stories written in decodable texts
-reading from decodable texts reinforces the sound-symbol relationships children have learned
(6) spelling VC and CVC words
-close relationship between phonics and spelling instruction
-once children have learned to read VC and CBC words, words fitting into this pattern should be part of their spelling lists
-phonics challenges students to decode words orally; spelling challenges students to use their phonics knowledge to encode words in writing
-children should sound out the word as they spell it, saying each sound to themselves as they write the appropriate letters
(6) SYSTEMATIC, EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION IN PHONICS AT MORE ADVANCED STAGES
-teach the regular CVCC, CCVC, and CVVC words
-teach regular CVCe words
-teach words with less common elements (e.g. consonant digraphs)
-continue the use of decodable text (which use words fitting more complex patterns, such as CVCC, CCVC, CVVC, CVCe, and irregular sight words)
-teach words formed by adding a common inflected ending
-teach students to use phonics knowledge to spell more complex orthographic patterns
(6) SYSTEMATIC, EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION IN SIGHT WORDS
-explicit (direct) teaching of sight words: best to follow a whole-to-part approach
-high-frequency words
-factors that affect the sequence of instruction for specific sight words
-explicit strategies for helping students master the spelling of high-frequency sight words
(6) factors that affect the sequences of instruction for specific sight words
-high-frequency words that appear most frequently in students' basal readers deserve priority; teach those words before students read the text
-high-frequency words that are visually similar should be taught together (e.g. the, they, this, there, then, them, these, than)
(6) explicit strategies for helping students master the spelling of high-frequency sight words
visual: use of color
-esp. effective with words with vowel digraphs, such as "said"
-students would practice writing the word, writing the "a" in red and the "i" in green, for example
auditory
-students practice writing the word, each time pronouncing each letter in the word
tactile
-can be effective because many high-frequency words contain few letters (of, to, in, is)
-children would write the words on a textured surface, such as their desktops, with their bare fingers
(6) MEETING THE NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS: struggling readers and students with reading disabilities
-focus on key phonics skills and high-frequency sight words
-reteach phonics skills and sight words that are lacking
---use different materials
---teach at a slower pace
---vary the mode of delivery (more/fewer visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile experiences)
-use a variety of concrete examples to explain a concept or task (e.g. letter tiles)
-provide additional practice
(6) MEETING THE NEEDS OF ALL LEARNERS: English learners and speakers of nonstandard English
-capitalize on transfer of relevant knowledge and skills from the primary language (cognates: two words that look alike and mean the same thing in two languages)
-explicitly teach sounds that do not transfer
-explicitly teach the meanings of sight words, if needed
-analyze patterns of error [Show Less]