NU 208 Pathophysiology Final Exam Study Guide. A+ Rated.● What is included in the cytoplasmic content and what is the function of each?:
○ Cytoplasms
... [Show More] are found in Eukaryotic cells
○ Cytoplasms consist of cytoplasmic matrix, cytosol, and cytoplasmic organelles
○ Cytoplasmic matrix - the space between nucleus and plasma membrane
○ Cytosol - an aqueous solution that fills the cytoplasmic matrix
○ Cytoplasmic organelles - ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, caveolae, and vaults
■ Chapter 1, Table 1-1 lists all of these organelles and their functions
● Aerobic glycolysis: ***
○ Requires oxygen
○ Gives more energy
● Anaerobic glycolysis: ***
○ Also known as substrate phosphorylation
○ Does not require oxygen
○ Breakdown/glycolysis of carbohydrates to pyruvate
○ Occurs in the cytoplasm
○ Not as effective as aerobic
● Klinefelter Syndrome: ***
○ Also known as XXY Syndrome
○ Males are born with an extra X chromosome
○ Has both male and female sex organs
○ Characteristics:
■ Male appearance, developed female-like breasts, small testes, sparse body
hair, and long limbs
● Down’s Syndrome: ***
○ Also known as Trisomy 21
○ Chromosome abnormality is on the 22nd pair
○ Risk increases due to older maternal age (above 35), having a children with down
syndrome before, and a parent that is a carrier
○ S/S:
■ Mental retardation, low nasal bridge, epicanthal folds, protruding tongue,
poor muscle tone, and heart deficits
● Dysplasia: ***
○ Deranged cellular growth
■ Out of control and growing where it shouldn’t be
● Hyperplasia: ***
○ An increase in the reproduction rate of cells causing the enlargement of an organ
or tissue
● Metaplasia: ***
○ Conversion/replacement of one cell type to another cell type
● Atrophy: ***
○ A decrease or shrinkage in cellular size (degeneration of cells)
○ Caused by nerve loss
○ Oxygen use and amino acid uptake are reduced
● Hypertrophy:
○ An increase or growth in cellular size
● Metabolic acidosis: Acidosis is a pH below 7.35 ***
○ Increased production/ingestion of H+ or loss of HCO3-
○ PCO2 decreases
○ Blood pH decreases (becoming too acidic)
○ HCO3 decreases
○ Elevated hydrogen ion
● Metabolic alkalosis: Alkalosis is a pH above 7.45 ***
○ Increased production/ingestion of HCO3- or loss of H+
○ PCO2 increases
○ Blood pH increases (becoming too alkaline)
○ HCO3 increases
● Respiratory acidosis:
○ CO2 retention
■ Decreased ventilations, breathing too slow
○ PCO2 increases
○ Blood pH decreases (becoming too acidic)
○ HCO3 increases
○ Elevated hydrogen ion
○ Hypercapnia - increased CO2 level in the arterial blood
○ Hypoventilation - often seen in those with airway obstructions and altered
neurologic function
● Respiratory alkalosis:
○ CO2 washout
■ Exceeding metabolic demand, breathing too fast
○ PCO2 decreases
○ Blood pH increases (becoming too alkaline)
○ HCO3 decreases
○ Hypocapnia - decreased CO2 level in the arterial blood
○ Hyperventilation - often seen in those with severe anxiety/panic attacks, acute
head injuries, pain, pregnancy, and in response to conditions that cause
hypoxemia
● What is the function of ADH? What stimulates the production/release of ADH?:***
○ Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin
○ Released from the posterior pituitary gland in response to dehydration or
decreased blood volume
○ Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, which increases blood volume
○ Potent vasoconstrictor
● Hyponatremia: ***
○ Definition:
■ Low sodium (NA+) levels in the blood
○ S/S:
■ Confusion, fatigue, nausea and vomiting, abdominal/muscle cramping,
increased urination, salty food cravings, and seizures
● Natural killer cell function: ***
○ Large granular lymphocytes in the innate immune system with natural
cytotoxicity against tumor cells and microbial infections
● Neutrophils: ***
○ The most abundant granulocyte (type of WBC) in the immune system
○ Clears the wound of debris during wound healing and bacteria, but are later
replaced by macrophages
● Monocytes: ***
○ The largest leukocyte (type of WBC) in the immune system
■ Can differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells
● Active immunity: ***
○ A form of acquired immunity in which antibodies develop in the immune system
after the body is exposed to an antigen through a disease or immunization
■ Lasts for a long time; produces their own antibodies [Show Less]