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Unit 2 WJEC Psychology questions and answers with complete top solutions
What is an aim? A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate What is a confounding variable? a factor other than the independ... [Show More] ent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment 00:50 01:40 What does debriefing mean? To inform the participants of the true nature of the study and the restore them to the same state as they were beforehand. Avoids ethical issues what is a DV? The variable you measure What is an ethical issue? Concern questions of right of wrong. Does the benefits of the experiment outweigh the negatives What is an experiment? A research method where a casual conclusions can be drawn because of a manipulated on an IV to observe the effect on the DV What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested What is an IV? variable that is manipulated What does the term operationalise mean? Ensuring that the variables are in a form that can be easily tested What is a standardised procedures? procedures that are the same for all ppts in order to be able to repeat the study. What is valid consent? ppts must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate. What is external validity? the degree to which the investigator can extend or generalize a study's results to other subjects and situations. (repeatability) 00:27 01:40 What is an extraneous variable? a variable other than the IV that could cause changes in the value of the DV. (doesn't act as the IV like confounding variables) What is internal validity? The degree to which an observed effect was due to the experiment manipulation not confounding/extraneous variables What is mundane realism? refers to how a study mirrors the real world What does reliability mean? consistency (can the research be carried out multiply times and get the same results) What does validity mean? accuracy/legitimacy. does it represent reality What does split half method mean? the questions are split in half and the same ppts answer one set some time before the second set. If the scores of each half are similar, it is said the the test is reliable What does inter-rated/observer reliability mean? People are notorious for their inconsistency. We are easily distracted, we get tired of doing repetitive tasks. Using 2 observers makes the results more reliable, IF THEY'RE FINDINGS ARE SIMILAR. What does test-retest mean? redoing the experiment, if the results are similar there is a high external validity. However, risks observer bias. What is a questionnaire? a series of written questions a researcher presents to subjects Strengths of questionnaires + Cost effective + Can gather large amounts of data quickly + Can be completed without the researcher being present Weaknesses of questionnaires - Can produce response bias - Ppts may misunderstand the question or read it incorrectly - Demand Characteristics / Social Desirability may occur What does qualitative data mean? literature based data What does quantitative data mean? numerical based data Strengths of qualitative data +Rich in detail +Allows for in-depth analyse Weaknesses of qualitative data - difficult to analyse -difficult to compare people or groups Strength of quantitative data +easier to analyse +Easier to compare groups/people Weaknesses of quantitative data - not detailed - potentially superficial Opened questionnaires + allows justification + generates qualitative data Closed questionnaires + Restricted respondent to a predetermined set responses + Generate quantitative data What is an interview? one-to-one conversation with propose What is a structured interview? an interview in which a set of standardised questions having an established set of answers is used What is a unstructured interview? No preset questions which allows the interviewer to explore the areas further with questions arising from the respondents answer Strengths of structured interviews +Allowed more targeted questioning and allows some questions to produce quantitative data. Weaknesses of structured interviews - doesn't allow the researchers to pick up on interesting comments - time-consuming as they interview ppt individually and then that data in transcribed and analysed. Strengths of unstructured interviews + More flexible in how the questions are asked + Allows for a sensitive approach to issues that is lacking other methods Weaknesses of unstructured interviews - Hard to standardise so hard to generalise - Very time consuming as analysing the results will take a very long time What is correlation? relationship between two variables What is a correlation coefficient? A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables. significant correlation A stats to mean that if the results are big enough not to ignore, we accept the experiment hypothesis and reject the null-hypothesis Features of case studies Focus on a sample of either one individual, group or organisation They study that sample in-depth A type of descriptive research where IV and DV are not used to test cause and effect Methods used in case studies. Unstructured and semi-structured interviews, observations and past records, medical histories; diaries etc. Bowlby's study was essentially a series of case studies of children uses of case studies Atypical behaviour/conditions Unusual situations, Usually small samples as not many are affected Give insight into how to help What's going on 'normally' and prevention; give in-depth insight. Strengths of case studies - offer high levels of validity as they go into depth and give insight - Allows researchers to study that event when it can't redo that circumstance due to ethical issues - Learn about issues not yet understood - Takes one to disprove a theory Weaknesses of case studies - difficult to generalise - bias, if researchers get too involved they lose objectivity and misinterpret data - difficult to id the cause and effect -extraneous variables aren't controlled What is content analysis? - a type of research method - used to quantify the content of different types of media - content analysis summarises the content by counting various aspects of the content Strengths of content analyse - High ecological validity - Findings can be easily replicated - No ethical issues, as the people aren't being dealt with in person weaknesses of content analysis - observer bias as they are recording it -- they chose what to record to fit their hypthesis What is a pilot study? A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation to spot any methodology issues What is a confederates? When the researcher has someone play a role in an experiment or other investigation e.g Milgram's the experimenter was a confederate Weaknesses of Repeated measures -Order effects (learning, fatigue) -Demand characteristics -Different tests may be needed Methods of dealing with the disadvantages of repeated measures two different tests - reduces practice effect -- can be done by constructing a test of 40 items to test A and test B cover story - reduce the changes of the ppts finding the true aim of the experiment Disadvantage of independent groups Participant variables are an issue (different abilities, characteristics of each ppts) as they could become confounding variables More ppts are needed Methods of dealing with the disadvantages of the independent groups - Randomly allocate ppts to conditions Disadvantages of Matched pairs - time consuming as you have find people with the same characteristic (e.g IQ) - no possible to control all ppts variables as you can only match on variables known to be relevant Methods to deal with the disadvantages of the matched pairs - restrict the number of variables to match - conduct a pilot study to consider key variables What is counterbalancing? an experiment technique used to overcome order effects when using repeated measure, this ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts What is an order effect? in a repeated measure design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented (practice and fatigue) Way 1 of counterbalancing (AB or BA) group 1 - A then B Group 2 - B then A this is still a repeated measure deign even though there are two groups of ppts as comparison will be made for each ppt and their performance on the two conditions Way 2 of counterbalancing (ABBA) all ppts take part in each condition twice trial 1: conditioning A trail 2: condition B trail 3: condition B trail 4: condition A compare 1 and 4 and 2 and 3 Conducting research online allows researchers to be able to access ppts via the internet or on social networking tools often questionnaires Advantages of online research - access to large groups, creating a diverse sample, reduces bias - cost effect, often free or very cheap - data analysis is quicker as ppts have transcribed their responses Disadvantages of online research - tend to be limited to questionnaires - ethical issues may become more difficult to deal with as most people don't read T&C, is this valid consent - difficult to debrief What is an natural quasi experiment? those with an IV what is difference study for quasi? no IV Natural experiments when it is not possible to deliberately manipulate an IV, therefore it is said that the IV varies naturally - the DV may be tested in a lab Difference studies the apparent IV is naturally occurring and the DV may be measured in a lab the IV may not been made to vary by anyone. It is simply a difference between people that exists (gender) Evaulation, why researchers cannot draw cause-and-effect - Manipulation of the IV - Random allocation - unique characteristics of ppts Manipulation of the IV (quasi) cannot say for certain that any change in the DV was caused by the IV, uncontrolled confounding variables Random allocation (independent groups design) not possible in a quasi or natural, this means there may be biases in different groups of participants, uncontrolled confounding variables Unique Characteristics of ppts the unique characteristics of the sample mean that the findings can't be generalised to other groups of people (low population validity) Unique characteristic of ppts example those who volunteer are going to be less violent when watching something violent, this can't be generalised to everyone though Demand characteristics cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behaviour is expected Orne, demand characteristics - those who were told about the panic button became more distressed then the blind group What is researcher bias? anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participant's performance in a study other than what was intended What is a direct researcher bias? as a consequence of the investigator interacting with the ppt [Show Less]
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WJEC Criminology, Unit 2, Bandura's Theory - Individualistic.100% accurate answers
What type of theory is Bandura's theory? Social Learning Theory. What is the main idea of Bandura's theory? The main idea of Bandura's theory is t... [Show More] hat people learn by watching the behaviour of others so for example, if children watch adults gaining pleasure from an activity, or being punished for an activity, they will either repeat or reject those behaviours. What was the experiment that Bandura conducted? Bandura conducted the bobo doll experiment where children would be exposed to 2 adult models: an aggressive model and a non-aggressive model. What did the bobo doll experiment involve? The children would witness the aggressive model kicking and hitting the doll and some of the children repeated this same behaviour and a few even came up with new ways to hurt children. However, when the children watched the non-aggressive model who didn't hurt the doll the children wouldn't hurt the doll either. What are the strengths of Bandura's theory? One strength is that the bobo doll study has been replicated with slight changes and similar results were found. Another advantage is that the bobo doll experiment showed the model did have an effect on the child's behaviour and therefore showed cause and effect. What are the limitations of Bandura's theory? One limitation is that the bobo doll experiment is a lab study which has low ecological validity and in the experiment the children and adults were strangers so it is questioned whether it can be applied to real-life or not. Another disadvantage is that the experiment involves ethical issues due to exposing the children to aggressive behaviour with the understanding that they would imitate it - issues concerning protection of the children from psychological and physical harm. [Show Less]
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WJEC A-Level Psychology Unit 1 (Assumptions) questions and answers with verified content
Behaviourist Approach A01- Describe Blank Slate (S) (E) Tabula Rasa Environmental Determinism Nurture influence Immitation (X) Bandura(1961)- ... [Show More] Bobo Doll Experiment and Observational Learning Humans and Animals Learn the Same Way (S) (E) Same brain structure Quantitative difference Generalisation Classical/Operant conditioning (X) Pavlov/ Skinner findings applied to humans e.g. Little Albert Behaviour Learnt Through Conditioning (E) Classical- UCS + NS= CS + CR Operant- punishment and reinforcement (X) Pavlov- bell and salivation Skinner- food pellets as reinforcement Biological Approach A01- Describe Neurotransmitters (E) Neurones communicate at the synapse Excitation/inhibition Medical Model (X) Volkow- link between dopamine and addiction (2000) Localisation of Brain Function (E) Specific functions Four lobes- occipital, temporal, parietal and frontal (X) Broca's Area- "Tan" speech and language coordination (temporal) Wernicke's area Evolutionary Influences (E) Natural Selection Survival EEA (X) Darwin Altruistic behaviour- protect similar genes Cognitive Approach A01- Describe Schemas (E) Packets of information Past experience Application Beliefs/expectation (X) Piagat described them as ' basic building blocks to intelligent behaviour' Innate schemas in infants Computer Anology (E) Compares brain to computer Limited capacity/ process Input-> process-> output (X) Attkinson and Shiffrin(1968) - Multistore model of memory (STM and LTM) Shallice and Warrington(1977) - man LTM unaffected but STM was Internal Mental Processing (E) Cognitive process Language, memory, perception and problem solving Introspection (X) Griffiths- gambling. availability bias, illusion of control Psychodynamic Approach A01- Describe (S) Influence of Childhood Experiences (E) Libido 5 psychosexual phases Fixation (X) Little Hans- Oedipus complex & Castration anxiety (S) The Unconscious Mind (E) Iceberg Analogy Conscious, preconscious and unconscious Ego defences and repression (X) Little Hans- fear of castration as symbols (S) Tripartite Personality (E) Id Ego Superego (X) Ego defences Id & Oedipus Positive Approach A01- Describe (S) Authenticity of Goodness and Excellence (E) Positive feelings are as natural as negative Inherited signature traits Doing good, causes good feelings (X) Seligman(2002) - fulfilment and interpersonal; relationships Wellbeing theory (S) Acknowledgment of Freewill (E) In charge of own emotions Self- directing Change in lifestyle, Change in attitude (X) Diener and Seligman(2002)- lifestyle impacts general feelings of happiness e.g. Religion (S) Focus on the Good Life (E) Pleasant life- living best life Good life- good decisions Meaningful life- aiming for legacy (X) Seligman- by maintaining and making the right path for ourselves, we can be happy [Show Less]
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WJEC Criminology: Unit 4- Crime and Punishment 100% accurate answers
The police work with probation and prison services, sharing information with other agencies to assess and manage violent and sexual offenders in order to p... [Show More] rotect the public from harm. Relationship between the police and MAPPA (Multi-agency public protection arrangements) 1.Ensure defendants are in police custody before court./ 2. Police attend court to give evidence./ 3. Police apply to the courts for search and arrest warrants./ Relationship between the police and the courts Break the terms of release and must return to prison Licence The police seek advice from the CPS on the charging of suspects. Both agencies work together in the prosecuting of offenders. The CPS offers the police 'CPS Direct' - a 24 hour advice line. Relationship between the police and CPS 1. First reading/ 2. Second reading/ 3. Committee stage/ 4. Report stage/ 5. Third reading/ 6. Royal assent/ How are laws made? the process by which courts interpret and apply legislation statutory interpretation Both agencies work together in the management of an offender. This includes sharing of information and attending meetings. Relationship between the police and probation. A proposed law Bill discuss the pros and cons of an issue Debate Law Statute decisions of courts have value as precedent for future cases similarly circumstanced Judicial precedent Assist with arrangements to ensure that those arrested sentenced to custody are taken there. Police will arrest a prisoner if they are recalled on licence and must return to prison. Relationship between the police and the HM Prison service 1. Seriousness of the crime 2. Harm caused to the victim 3. Offender's level of blame 4. Previous convictions of the offender 5. Personal circumstances of the offender, including a guilty plea What does the judiciary take into account in order to decide a fair sentence? Crime control model What model shows: - Quick and efficient disposal of cases - Zero tolerance approach - Assembly line or conveyor belt - Right realism theory of criminality - Punish criminals and stop them committing further crimes - Deter crime through detection and conviction - Protect rights of victims - Enhanced police powers? Due process model Which model shows: - Presumption of innocence - Produce fairness - Promote the defendant's rights - Limit official oppression of the individual - Legislation that should produce obstacles to ensure a fair conviction - Left realism theory of criminality - A caring and equal society creates justice? Prison Reform Trust Which charity aims to improve the prison system? 1. Traditions 2. Upbringing 3. Religion 4. Conscience 5. Rational ideology 6. Internalisation of social rules What are examples of internal forms of social control? These are the thoughts and views that we have of crime, linking to our morals and conscience. What is internal social control? Social Learning theory Which theory from Unit 2 links to internal social control? 1. Police 2. Parents 3. Teachers 4. Judges 5. Magistrates 6. Traffic wardens 7. Prisons 8. Religious leaders 9. Security staff 10. CCTV What are examples of external social control? External controls are outside influences which make us follow the rules and not commit crime. They persuade or compel us to conform to the rules. What is external social control? This is the idea that people do not commit criminal or deviant acts because there are factors that control their behaviour and desire or impulse to break the rules. What is control theory? Walter C. Reckless and Travis Hirschi Which theorists relate to the control theory? 1. Retribution 2. Deterrence 3. Rehabilitation 4. Public protection 5. Reparation What are the aims of punishment? Retributions are not punishments for punishment's sake, but are the desire to ensure that the offender is adequately punished and doesn't commit crime any more. What is retribution? Rehabilitation aims to change the offender and make them use their free will, or their own mind so they do not want to commit crime, but rather conform to the rules of society. What is rehabilitation? Trying to dissuade the offender with both general and individual fear of punishment What is deterrence? Keeping society safe from dangerous people. What is public protection? Providing compensation for the crime or repairing the wrong done. What is reparation? Reinforcing rules, including moral and ethical ideas, to show that society does not agree with a certain act and will not tolerate it. What is denunciation? Social learning theory Which theory from Unit 2 links to deterrence? Right realism Which theory from Unit 2 links to public protection? Left realism Which theory from Unit 2 links to reparation? Functionalism Which theory from Unit 2 links to denunciation? 1. Retribution 2. Rehabilitation 3. Deterrence 4. Public protection/ incapacitation 5.Denunciation What are the aims of imprisonment? - Community payback (Unpaid work for 40-300 hours) - Treatment and programs (To help with addictions and mental health issues) - Restrictions (Such as a curfew, electronic tag or residence condition) What are examples of community sentences? - Police - CPS - Judiciary - Prisons - Probation Service - Charities and pressure groups What are the different agencies in the criminal justice system? [Show Less]
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Business WJEC Unit 3 A2 level 100% accurate answers
index numbers Indicator if changes in prices and quantities. Its a speiclaised avg designed to measure a group of related variable overs X amount of time.... [Show More] Features of index numbers Measures relative change over time Quantitative expression- Offer a precise measurement of the quantitative change in the concerned variable. Average- show changes in terms of average Advantages of Index numbers 1.Measurement of change in the price level/ value for money.- Know the impact of the change in the value of money on different sections of society 2. Knowledge of change in standard of living- Helps to ascertain the living standards of people. Money income may be increased, increasing S.O.L (vice versa) 3. Adjustment in salaries and allowances- Cost of living index useful guide to the government and private enterprises to make adjustments in salaries of workers 4. Useful for foreign trade- imports and exports 5. Useful for business community Disadvantages of index numbers 1. Not fully true- only indicate temporal changes in the variable 2. Cant compare internationally as diff countries have diff base index no. 3. Comparisons of variable changes over long periods of time make it more unreliable Index numbers formula Value in period _______________________ x 100 Value in base period the usefulness index no.s Used for economic analysis RPI/CPI RPI see if need to make any adjustments to wages Compare changes over time w/ inflation Makes value of changes clear Market Analysis the process of locating and describing potential customers so that business adopt a relevant marketing strategy to fulfill needs and wants price elasticity of demand a measure of the sensitivity of demand to changes in price Formula PED % change in quantity demanded / % change in price income elasticity of demand a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers' income, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income Formula for YED % change in quantity demanded / % change in income >1 elastic- change in price has a significant effect on demand <1 inelastic- change in price has little effect on demand Factors influencing elasticity of demand The closeness of substitutes The proportion of income spent on the good The time elapsed since a price change Knowing the price elasticity of demand is important in business because: reduces risk and uncertainty Knowledge of PED helps businesses forecast its sales and set prices Knowing YED of a product helps a business respond to changing economic situations, allows to plan ahead Helps develop a strategy and product portfolio Sales Forecasting A quantitative technique that attempts to estimate the level of sales a business expects to achieve, over a given time period. Sales Forecasting Techniques 1. Judgments of the decision maker 2. Surveys of knowledgeable groups 3. Statistical methods sales forecasting advantages -Allows to predict sales -Allows to estimate quantity and cost of the purchase of raw materials to determine production levels -Predict finance needed -Predict HRM needed Disadvantages -May predict wrong -Only a prediction extrapolation the act of estimation by projecting known information. Using past experience/ business data to predict future sales Quantitative Sales Forecasting-Seasonal • Based on analysis of historical data to predict future sales • Seasonal Adjustments o What appears to be a good forecast may turn out to be a poor one because of the failure to consider seasonal factors o Collect sales figures for the past several years o Next, sales for months of quarters are averaged across years to build a seasonal index o The quarterly averages are then divided by mean sales for all quarters to give seasonal index number o Once seasonal index numbers are developed for each time period, it is easy to adjust a set of sales data seasonally o Actual sales, are simply divided by the appropriate index numbers to give a set of deseasonalized data then prepared using the deseasonalized figures o Two truths to remember • Seasonal adjustments are widely used in business • Seasonal adjustments reduce forecasting errors Quantitative sales forecasting-Time Series analysis o Seasonal analysis o Trend analysis- Data collected over no. years to determine a trend in sales o Cycle analysis- Long term figures to examine the relationship b/e diff levels of demand and economic activity. o Random factor analysis- Attempts to explain how unusual or extreme sales figures occur. Increase in sales caused by weather.... Advantages of Time series Analysis +Helps plan ahead +Helps financial plan w/ cash flow forecast +Production planning, determine right level of labor, suppliers to meet higher/lower level of demand +HR planning, right no. of staff to meet demand +Identifies seasonal adjustments +Reduces risk of unexpected surprises that may affect business' performance Disadvantages of Time series Analysis -Not easy to predict future sales -Historical data is not a good indication of what may happen in the future -Complicated sales forecasting methods can even get it wrong -No forecast is 100% -Less useful for long term forecasts -Success isn't guaranteed Quantitative sales forecasting-Market research data o Surveys of consumer responses to make predictions on their responses o Direct sales info- Sales team w/ business interact closely w/ customers. They may notice developing trends and spot market change, shifts in attitudes/preferences o Test marketing- Testing consumer responses to products before full release of the product +Allows negative responses to be changed Qualitative research methods Aim to understand the nature or meaning of experiences, which cannot be quantified into numbers o Delphi Method o Brainstorming o Intuition o Expert opinion Delphi Method forecasts developed by asking a panel of experts to individually and repeatedly respond to a series of questions 1. Develop a questionnaire tailored to the question send to a panel of experts 2. Gather responses from the questionnaire and create a new questionnaire based on responses and send new questionnaire back to the panel of experts 3. Members of the panel independently rate and priorities ideas. Enables group of experts to arrive at a consensus forecast on a subject being discussed Advantages of Delphi Method +Flexible enough to be used in a variety of situations, can be applied to a range of problems +Is a structured way formed by a group of experts +Creates a record of the expert group's responses and ideal to be used when needed +Participants have time to think ideas through leading to better quality responses Disadvantages of Delphi Method -Time consuming to coordinate and manage -Assumes experts are willing to come to a consensus and allow their opinions to be altered by the views of other experts -Monetary payments to the expert may be biased in result of the study (tailor the results to be positive) 3 point moving average 3 period found by- Adding up every 3 pieces of Data, and dividing it by 3 to find the moving average Find the top middle point times Y y 3 minus (X+Z) = M Brainstorming the process of getting a group to think of unlimited ways to vary a product or solve a problem +cheap +Fast +No data gathering -Gut feeling, need other forecasting techniques expert opinion recommendations of individuals who have expertise in a particular area that are sometimes the basis of a group's decision-making process +Useful for gathering specialist insights into likely future patterns and trends -Shouldn't be used as a standalone basis, make mistakes, wrongly forecast future demand External factors affecting quantitative and qualitative sales forecasting Economic factors- Unemployment levels - Inflation affecting consumer spending - Interest Rates - Exchange Rates Consumer factors- Change in taste and fashion - Change w/market research - Change in consumer spending Competition factors- Can't control actions of competitors Analysing financial performance Financial accounts required analyse performance and include balance sheet, trading profit and loss (income statement) Businesses use ratio analysis to calculate and interpret performance indicators Balance Sheet a statement of the assets, liabilities, and capital of a business or other organization at a particular point in time, detailing the balance of income and expenditure over the preceding period. Components of Balance Sheet o Current assets- Own (stock, debtors, cash) o Current Liabilities- Owe (Trade creditors bank overdrafts, suppliers trade credit= Pay later) o Debtors- Owes you o Creditors- Owe them o Long term non current liabilities- Bank loans, mortgages, repaid over a year) o Fixed, non current assets,- Buildings, machinery, retained profit- Used to produce output Net assets formula Assets - Liabilities Difference b/e CA-CL Balance sheet FA Ca Cl NCA NA Current ratio (measures liquidity) ability of company to pay short-term debt-paying CA/CL x 100 :1 Every £X a business owes in CA it owes £1 in CL Higher than 1.5:1 +Meet demand +Managing working capital effectively Below 1.5: -Meet one, but less only have half to pay next period -Over borrowing 2:1 Too much money not being used productively Acid Test Ratio (measures liquidity) Measures a business' ability to meet short-term demands for cash more reliability than the current ratio Current Assets - Stock / Current Liabilities :1 Ideal 1:1 Less than 1:1 -Not enough CA (-stock) to cover liabilities Working Capital Management Management of a firm's current balance of assets and liabilities; involves accounts payable and receivable, inventory and cash. CA-CL High working capital (WC) +Business meets demand from creditors +Positive WC enables a business to pay wages, salaries, overheads Negative working capital - Current liabilities (owe_ grater than current assets (own) Liquidity the ease with which an asset can be converted into cash Liquidity Ratios a group of ratios that reveal the ability of an establishment to meet its short-term obligations Bad liquidity - Unable to pay creditors - Supplies/stock stopped Gearing Ratio (measures liquidity measures the extent to which the capital employed by a firm is financed from loan capital Calculates the portion (%) of capital employed that is financed by long term liabilities Long-term liabilities ----------------------- X 100 =% Capital employed. (LTL+SHF) If gearing ratio exceeds 50%- Highly geared -Funded mainly by loan capital - Interest paid on debts reduces profits available to shareholders -If interest rates increase will reduce profits to be reinvested/ paid to shareholders Capital employed The total value of capital used in the business Return on capital employed (ROCE) The profit of a business as a percentage of the total amount of money used to generate it. Net profit before tax ---------------------- x100 LTL+ SHF straight line depreciation Method that allocates an equal portion of the depreciable cost of plant asset (cost minus salvage) to each accounting period in its useful life. Depreciation formula (cost - salvage value) / useful life Window dressing Action taken by the client shortly before the balance sheet date to improve the financial picture presented in the financial statements. Why window dress? o Improve share prices. If a business increases their prices to increase revenue and then profit. Investors would buy more shares o Delaying payments intil after the balance sheet is sent of to make accounts look stronger. o Selling off fixed assets will be lightly depreciated making the corporation look as if it was using only new equipment. o Look more valuable to takeovers, increasing the price they get. Or deter takeovers o Reduce tax bills o Improve credit rating o Fooling the bankers- To adhere to the loan criteria standards', institutions to match the high current ratio criteria (indicates the company has enough cash to and short term assets to pay interest charges -Might cause cash crunch increasing risk of defaulting, bankruptcy and liquidation Can go to jail- defrauding investors White lies could corrode on ethical standards of a company's executives and spiral down into illegal practices eg. fraud--> prison Non-financial performance measures Statistics and data that are not financial in nature but can be used to assess an organizations performance such as the non-financial measures used in a balanced scorecard non financial performance Market share Total sales a firm has in the market Sales target- sales important to businesses, generating profits, setting targets for future. Targeting increased use of existing customers Productivity- Measure output against fixed input Labor productivity- employees 10 ---------------- make 30 in an hour each employee makes 3 Environmental impact- Business becomes more aware of the impact on the environment and try to minimise the impact by recycling, giving suppliers good deal, paying workers above minimum wage adopting CSR policy Customer satisfaction measuring Returning customers/ no. of complaints Employee attitude surveys Aims Long-term plans of the business from which its corporate objectives are derived objectives Specific, short-term statements detailing how to achieve the organisation's goals. Vision Statement expresses what the organization should become, where it wants to go strategically in the medium to long-term Should be a clear guide to senior management Give a direction of where the business is going so staff can work towards getting there Clear vision statement Gives business clear identity and ethos Helps setting of objectives and support business strategies Commits resources to achieving the vision Communicates to employees how they can contribute and improve employees engagement Mission Statement a statement of the organisation's purpose - what it wants to accomplish in the larger environment- Guides everyday operations and decision making of the business clear mission statement Gives clear view what the business is about Helps customers understand ethics of the business Helps ensure stakeholder are clear on the purpose so everyone is focused on the same goal Some transparency for investors. Understand how their capital will be used Helps w/ strategic planning Main purpose - Gives an organisation cohesiveness so all organisation from the chief executive office (CEO) to workers on the shop floor have a set of common aims. They know what the business stands for and is trying to achieve Mission statement drawbacks Tends to be quite vague Express aspirations rather than reality Some argue they're unrealistic, never achieved Business Aims and Objectives Aims are the goals a business wants to achieve. The objective are the practical steps to achieve the goals - usually SMART. Business objectives the stated, measurable targets of how to achieve business aims Business objectives the stated, measurable targets of how to achieve business goals Corporate Strategy The set of businesses, markets, or industries in which an organization competes and the distribution of resources among those entities. Strategic Strategy carefully planned in order to achieve a particular goal [Show Less]
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GCSE WJEC Eduqas History-USA questions and answers ,A+ content
Describe the Wall Streets Crash. 19th October 1929-3.5 million shares bought and sold and prices began to fall quickly. Thursday 24th October 1929-"Black... [Show More] Thursday",13 million shares traded and prices collapsed. Investors lost millions of dollars. Describe the impact of the Wall Street Crash on unemployment. End of 1929- 2.5 million people unemployed. End of 1930-5 million people unemployed. End of 1931-9 million people unemployed. End of 1932-13.5 million people unemployed. Describe the impact of the Wall Street Crash on depression in the cities. Factories began to close down. People stopped spending. Almost one third of the workforce was unemployed. People lost their homes. Some moved into Hoovervilles, some slept on the streets and others travelled the country as Hobos. Black workers were the first to be sacked. Black unemployment was at 50% by 1933. White unemployment was at 20% by 1933. Describe the impact of the Wall Street Crash on depression in the countryside. Farmers went bankrupt as they couldn't sell their produce. Drought in 1931 reduced prices and deceased output. Oklahoma,Colorado,New Mexico and Kansas hit worst by the drought- Know as the "Dust Bowl" 20 million hectares of land. 1 million people went to west coast for fruit-growing jobs. From Oklahoma-"Okies" From Arkansas-"Arkies" Describe the impact of the Wall Street Crash on family life. Marriage rate fell from 1.23 million in 1929 to 982,00 in 1932. Suicide rates rose from 12.6 per 1,000 in 1926 to 17.4 per 1,000 people. Schools closed for 10 months of the year as there was not enough money to pay teachers. 1932-Estimated 25% of the country recieving no income. Relied on charities such as the Red Cross. Describe Hoovervilles. Slums on the outside of towns and cities. Sarcastic name due to Hoover's lack of support and relief. No running water or sewage system. At peak , several hundred thousand people lived in Hoovervilles. "Hoover Blankets"-Layers of newspaper. "Hoover Flag"-Trouser pockets turned inside out to show lack of money. "Hoover Wagons"-Cars with horses tied to them to show lack of money to buy petrol. Describe the Bonus Marchers. First World War veterans who were promised a bonus for serving in the war payable in 1945. Couldn't wait that long so in May and June 1932 Bonus Expeditionary Forces , made of 12,000 veterans marched to Washington DC. Took wives and children with them. Built a Hooverville outside the capital. Would have cost $2.3 million to pay bonuses. Congress p[aid for transport home but 5,000 refused. Labelled communists by government. Conflict broke out- 2 veterans killed. Army used tear gas- killed a baby and 100 people injured. Describe Hoover's early policies. Laissez faire(leave alone) and rugged individualism when dealing with the economy. Met with business leaders to cut wages and production levels. Hawley Smoot Tariff Act 1930-Protected US farmers by putting tariffs on foreign goods. Countries refused to trade with the US. Agricultural Marketing Act 1930- Government lent money to farmers through cooperatives which tried to fix prices to reasonable levels. Cut takes by $130 million. Won congress approval of $1.8 billion for new construction and road and damn repair. Describe Hoover's policies in 1932. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (February 1932)-Largest federal aid given, $2 billion loans to banks, insurance companies and railroads,designed to last 2 years. Emergency Relief Act(ERA,July 1932)-Provided state governments with $3000 million to help the unemployed. Home Loan Bank Act(July 1932)-Stimulated house building and home ownership.12 regional banks set up with $125 million. Describe the successes of Hoover's policies. Sent $1.5 billion on public work schemes. Persuaded local governments to expand their public works programmes. Implemented policies that were continued by Roosevelt- such as helping banks and home owners. Describe Roosevelt's election in 1932. Won by a landslide, 48 states against 6 states. Hoover blamed for Depression. Roosevelt had overcome polio. Roosevelt had created optimism in the country. Roosevelt offered a simple message. Roosevelt's new deal offered hope for Americans. Describe the aims of the New Deal. Relief-Assist in the removal of poverty .Provide food for the starving.Intervene to prevent people from loosing homes/farms. Recovery-Boost the economy so people could get jobs. Reform-Ensure that there were welfare provisions in the future to help the unemployed ,old, sick, disabled and destitute. Describe the Hundred Days. 9th March 1933- 16th June 1933. Roosevelt allowed to bypass congress to pass acts. Roosevelt needed to stem the banking crisis. 20,00 banks had closed in the year before. Closed all banks for 10 days and on radio with 60 million listeners he explained his plans. Allowed banks with assets to re-open and those without would shut down. Said banks were safer. Became one of many of the fireside chats. Describe the Agricultural Adjustment Act. Set up to increase farm prices and farmers' income. Production levels had to drop. Government paid farmers to produce less. 5 million pigs killed and thousands of hectares of cotton were ploughed back into the ground. By 1936 income was 1.5 times higher than in 1933. The Act was rejected by the Supreme Court in 1936. Describe the Civilian Conservation Corps. Created jobs for men aged between 18-25 who were hobos or living in Hoovervilles. Planted trees to avoid soil erosion. Received clothes,food and $1 a day. August 1933-250,000 men in the CCC 1941-More than 2 million members. Describe the Civil Works Administration Created public jobs. January 1934-4 million unskilled Americans on the CWA's payroll. Some built roads however some jobs were laughed at such as scaring birds away from buildings and sweeping leaves in parks. Describe the Emergency Banking Act Set up to restore confidence in the banking system. Prevented banks from investing savings deposits in the stock markets which was too unpredictable to guarantee the safety of those funds. Describe the Farm Credit Act Gave low-interest loans to farmers to help them pay their debts such as mortgages. 20% of farmers benefited from the scheme. Describe the Federal Emergency Relief Administration Provided $500 million for emergency relief through grants to state and local agencies. Temporary because Roosevelt did not want his opponents to think the government was just handing money out to the unemployed. Describe the National Recovery Administration Set fair prices,wages and working conditions such as maximum hours and minimum wage. Publicity campaign to get business leaders to comply. Blue eagle poster and asked people to only buy goods displaying the poster. Removed by the Supreme Court in 1935. Describe the Public Works Administration and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. PWA-Spent $3.3 billion on large scale public works. RFC-Roosevelt pumped $15 billion into Hoover's agency.Banks and businesses were able to use the money to restart Describe the Tennessee Valley Association Aimed at regenerating the Tennessee Valley region which was one of the most depressed regions in America. Half of the population of 2.5 million receiving relief and annual flood damage of 1.75 million. Created damns to generate electricity and controlled flooding. Built recreational areas as well as health and welfare facilities. Covered 7 states and 104,000 km2 of land with a population of 7 million people. Opposition from farmers whose land was flooded and some big businesses who felt the US was moving towards socialism. Describe the second New Deal. End of 1934-Still 10 million unemployed Americans. January 1935-Roosevelt introduced his second New Deal to reform America. Describe the Works Progress Administration (WPA) Headed by Harry Hopkins-previously in charge of FERA. Funded building projects. Organised a $4.8 billion relief programme. Put unemployed teachers back to work. Created community service schemes to employ creative professions. Describe The National Labour Relations Act The Wagner Act. Boosted workers rights. Trade union membership increased from 3 million in 1933 to 9 million in 1939. Set up National Relations Board which was given the power to act against employers who were unfair to workers. Describe the Fair Labour Standards Act Minimum wage established. Maximum working hours established. 300,000 workers secured higher wages. Over a million workers had a shorter working week. Child labour was only allowed on farms. Describe the Social Security Act Government accepted full responsibility for meeting the basic needs of its citizens. Gave pension benefits to elderly,orphaned and those injured in industrial accidents. Gave unemployment benefits funded by a tax on the payrolls of employers. How did the New Deal change the role of the President? Restored the faith of people in the government after Hoover's laissez-faire approach. Preserved democracy and ensured that there was no mass support for right-winged politicians. Extended the role of central government and the President. Federal government became directly involved in areas previously run by state governments. [Show Less]
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WJEC A2 Biology – Photosynthesis questions and answers graded A+
Define the term photosynthesis A method of autotrophic nutition by which green plants (and some other organisms) use sunlight to synthesise glucose and ot... [Show More] her organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water Name 8 nutrients needed by plants in large quantities (macronutrients) Potassium ions, Sodium ions, Magnesium ion, Calcium ions, Nitrates, Phosphates, Sulphates and Iron ions Name 5 nutrients needed by plants in only small amounts (micronutrients) Copper, Manganese, Molybdenum, Boron and Zinc - ions Where does photosynthesis take place? On the thylakoid membranes inside chloroplasts Name some adaptations of leaves for photosynthesis Leaves are arranged in a mosaic to allow light to hit lower leaves Leaves have large SA to absorb as much light as possible Thin leaves provide short diffusion pathways for gases and allow all layers of leaves to receive light Cuticle and epidermis transparent Palisade cells packed close and have long axis at 90 degrees to the sun Xylem and Phloem to transport products Stomatal pores can be controlled to allow in more CO2/control rate of transpiration Air spaces in spongy mesophyll allows easy diffusion of gases through the leaf How is a chloroplast adapted for photosynthesis? Chloroplasts can move for best positions Contains several photosynthetic pigments to absorb many different wavelengths of light Thylakoids in stacks to maximise absorption of light Thylakoids have large SA Thylakoids are thin providng a short diffusion pathway Describe Englemann's experiment to find what wavelengths of light are most effective for photosynthesis Used a prism to slit white light into a spectrum Shone spectrum on Spirogyra ( with spiral chloroplasts) Added aerobic bacteria to Spirogyra sample Aerobic bacteria clustered at points on the Spirogyra which produced the most oxygen These with the greatest rate of photosynthesis Therefore the wavelengths shone on these areas of the Spirogyra are most efficient for photosynthesis What is the function of photosynthetic pigments? To absorb light energy/ photons of light What is a pigment? The natural colouring matter of animal or plant tissue Where does chlorophyll b have absorption peaks on its absorption spectrum? 470nm and 640nm Where does chlorophyll a have absorption peaks on its absorption spectrum? 450nm and 670nm Where do carotenoids have absorption peaks on its absorption spectrum? 450nm and 500nm Name 4 photosynthetic pigments Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotene, xanthophyll Name two carotenoids Carotene and xanthophyll Why is it advantageous for a plant to have many different photosynthetic pigments? Pigments absorb limited parts of the spectrum/limited range of wavelengths of light More pigments increases the range of wavelengths that can be absorbed Increases the efficiency of photosynthesis Why do leaves of flowering trees go red/brown in the winter? Chlorophyll is retracted from the leaves (to conserve the pigment and save energy by not having to make more of it) leaving just the carotenoids which reflect red/brown light/ are red/brown coloured How are the photosynthetic pigments arranged in chloroplasts? Arranged in antenna complexes with special proteins to help funnel light (energy) down towards the reactions centre (chlorophyll a - the primary pigment) Where are the photosynthetic pigments found in chloroplasts? Photosystems are found on Thylakoid membranes What is the name given to the combination of an antenna complex and a reaction centre? Photosystem What are the components of a photosystem An antenna complex made of special proteins and photosynthetic pigments A primary pigment - called the reaction centre What technique can be use to separate out photosynthetic pigments from a cluster of pigments found in a photsystem and identify them? Chromatography How is the action spectrum of photosynthesis related to the absorption spectra of the photosynthetic pigments? Close correlation (same shape/trend) Suggests that the wavelengths used in light absorption are used in photosynthesis What does an absorption spectrum show? The wavelengths of light absorbed by a specific substance What does an action spectrum of photosynthesis show? The rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light Where does the LDS occur? Thylakoid membranes Name two reactions that take place in the LDS? Photolysis of water Photophosphorylation of ADP What is another name for non-cyclic photophosphorylation? The Z scheme Describe the sequence of steps and reactions that occur in the Z scheme Photons of light/light energy absorbed by PS2 are channelled to a reaction centre (chlorophyll a) This causes excitation of two electrons which are accepted by the primary electron acceptor which passes them to an ETC on the membrane The electrons pass through a pump between PS2 and PS1 at which energy from the electrons is used to pump protons into the thylakoid interior space creating an ECG used to synthesise ATP Photons are absorbed by PS1, 2 electrons excited and passed to 2nd electron acceptor which passes electrons to NADP+ Photolysis of water produces electrons to replace those lost by PS2 and protons which combine with electrons from PS1 to reduce NADP+in the stroma PS1's electrons replaced by those coming from PS2 How many electrons are excited at a time from a photosystem when it absorbs photons of light? 2 What is photophosphorylation? When energy lost by electrons (excited by photons striking a photosystem) on the ETC is captured and used for pumping protons into the interior space thus creating an ECG by which ATP is phosphorylated via chemiosmosis What are the products of photolysis of water? Oxygen, protons and electrons Where does the photolysis of water occur? Thylakoid interior space How is the concentration of protons in the stroma decreased? Reduction of NADP+ How is the concentration of protons in the thylakoid interior space increased? Photolysis of water How is an ECG established across a thylakoid membrane? Pumps on membrane pump protons from stroma into interior space. Photolysis of water produces more protons in the interior space and reduction of NADP+ decreases the concentration of protons in the stroma What is chemiosmosis? The theory that the electrochemical gradient made from the pumping of protons to only one side of a membrane provides the energy for ATP production by generating a flow of hydrogen ions through a channel protein with ATPsynthase attached Name the two stages of photosynthesis Light Dependent Stages Light Independent Stage (Calvin Cycle) Where does the Calvin cycle take place? In the stroma Describe the process of cyclic photophosphorylation PS1 absorbs photons of light/light energy which are channeled to a reaction centre (chlorophyll a) and used to excite two electrons These electrons are accepted by an acceptor and those electrons not used for reduction of NADP+ are passed down an ETC Electrons de-excite down the ETC and their energy is used to pump protons into the thylakoid interior space creating an ECG The electrons are re-accepted by PS1 What are the product(s) of cyclic photophosphorylation? ATP What are the product(s) of non-cyclic photophosphorylation? ATP, Oxygen, NADPH2 What is the terminal electron acceptor in cyclic photophosphorylation? Chlorophyll What is the terminal electron acceptor in non-cyclic photophosphorylation? NADP+ Which photosystem is involved in cyclic photophosphorylation? PS1 Why can the Calvin cycle not take place without the LDS? The LDS produces ATP and NADPH2 which are needed to convert glycerate-3-phosphate to triose-phosphate in the Calvin cycle Describe the sequence of events that occur in the Calvin cycle CO2 that has diffused in through stomata is combined with RuBP using the enzyme RUBISCO (carboxylation) This forms a short lived 6C sugar that decays into two molecules of G3P G3P is reduced by NADPH2 (requiring phosphate from a molecule of ATP) to form triose phosphate For every 6 molecules of triose phosphate formed 5 are used to regenerate RuBP and one is used to build up glucose phosphate The regenerations of RuBP uses ATP from the LDS Why does ribulose bisphosphate need to be regenerated? To allow the Calvin cycle to start again/continue turning How many turns of the Calvin cycle is needed to make one molecule of glucose? 6 What is the general equation for photosynthesis? 6CO2 + 6H20 -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 How do plants synthesise glucose from triose phosphate? The reversal of glycolysis How is starch formed by plants? By the polymerisation of glucose via condensation reactions How do plants produce lipids? G3P from the Calvin cycle can be converted into Acetyl CoA which is used to synthesise fatty acids Triose phosphate can be converted into glycerol Glycerol is combined with fatty acids via condensation reactions to produce lipids How do plants produce proteins? G3P from the Calvin cycle is converted to Acetyl CoA which eneters the Krebs cycle. Intermediate molecules of the Kreb's cycle can be made into amino acids by combining with nitrogen How do plants obtain nitrogen? Take up through the roots as nitrates and ammonium ions What are the symptoms of nitrogen deficiency in plants? Stunted growth as there is a lack of nucleic acids thus inhibiting cell division What are the uses of magnesium in a plant? Mg ions are required constituents of chlorophyll and used for the activation of ATPase What are the symptoms of magnesium deficiency in plants? Chlorosis (yellowing of leaves as not enough chlorophyll is made) Death Name 3 limiting factors of photosynthesis Temperature CO2 concentration Light intensity Describe how the rate of photosynthesis varies with temperature For normal plants photosynthesis can only occur if temperature is above 0 degrees Celsius Rate increases as temperature increases up to an optimum temp (roughly 25 degrees Celsius) Passed optimum the rate levels off before then decreasing Describe how the rate of photosynthesis varies with light intensity/CO2 concentration Rate increases as intensity/concentration increases up to a point and then plateaus/tails off Another factor is the limiting factor after the rate tails off Give 3 examples of minerals taken up from the soil, by plants, that are combined with products of the LDS and what they are used to form Nitrates: Form amino acids which join to form proteins Phosphates: Used to produce phospholipids and are found in ATP/ADP Magnesium: Constituent of chlorophyll Nitrates and phosphates: from nucleotides What does NADP+ stand for? Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate Where is NADPH2 produced? Thyalkoids (stroma right next to it though!) Why is photosynthesis essential for the survival of all animals? Produces oxygen needed by animals for aerobic respiration During PS carbon is fixed during formation of organic compounds such as glucose which animals require [Show Less]
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WJEC Psychology Research Methods questions and answers with verified content
Confounding Variable Any variable which varies systematically with the independent that might potentially affect the dependent variable and thereby confou... [Show More] nd results. Operationalise Ensuring variables are in a form than can be easily tested. Standardised Procedures A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order t be able to repeat the study. External Validity Degree to which a research finding can be generalised to: - other settings (ecological validity) - other people (population validity) - over time (historical validity) Extraneous Variables Affect the dependent variable but not in a systematic way. They should be controlled if possible. Pilot Study Small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements. Aim of Research A statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a research study. Hypothesis A precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables. Operationalisation is a key part of making statement testable. Internal Validity Degree to which an observed effect was due to experimental manipulation rather than other factors. Independent Variables An event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on the dependent variable. Experiment Causal conclusion can be drawn because an IV has been deliberately manipulated to observe a causal effect on the DV. Quasi-Experiment Studies that are 'almost' experiments. Experimenter has not manipulated the IV directly. The IV would vary whether or not the researcher was interested and researcher records the results. Natural Experiments Experimenter cannot manipulate the IV directly, but where it varies naturally, and the effect on the DV can be observed. Participant Observation Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity. Non-Participant Observation The observer is separate from the people being observed. Content analysis A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries or TV programmes. Semistructured interview The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions and let ls the respondents answers guide subsequent questions. Case study Research investigation involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event. Provides a rich record of human experience but hard to generalise from. Self-report Data collection techniques where participant describes their behaviour, for examples questionnaires, interviews or studies. laboratory An environment which can be controlled by the researcher. In particular a researcher wishes to control extraneous variable and, in an experiment, needs to manipulate the independent variable. The field Conducting research in the field usually means working with participants in an environment that is more familiar to them i.e a more natural setting. Online Refers to being connected via the Internet to another source. You may be connected to a website or could be using an app. Data can be collected from individuals. Target population The group of people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people from whom a sample is drawn. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made. Sampling frame Source material from which sample is drawn Random sampling Sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population being tested has equal chance of being selected Opportunity sampling A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are more easily available at the time of the study. Systematic sampling Sample obtained by selecting every nth person. This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that. Stratified sampling Sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the target population. Participants then selected randomly from the subgroups. Self-selected sampling Sample of participants that rely solely on volunteers to make up a sample. Snowball sampling Relies on referrals from initial participants to generate additional participants. Event sampling Observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour occurs. Time sampling An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame. The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval. Independent groups design Participants are allocated to two or more groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually done using random techniques. Repeated measures Each participant takes part in every condition under test i.e. each level of the IV. Matched pairs Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person allocated the other condition. Nominal data Data is in separate categories. Ordinal data Data is ordered in some way. Interval data Units are equal interview intervals are used, such as counting correct answers. Measures of central tendency Please inform us about central values for set of data. They are averages - ways of calculating typical value for set of data. Mean, Median, Mode. Mean Calculated by adding up all the data items and dividing by the number of data items. It's the most sensitive as it takes into account every value of data, this means it can be easily distorted by one, or a few, extreme values and thus, end up being misrepresentative of the data as a whole. Median The middle value in an ordered list. The median can be used with ratio, interval and ordinal data. The median is not affected by extreme scores, that can be useful in certain circumstances. It's also not sensitive like the mean because the exact values are not reflected in the median. Mode The value that is the most common data item. In nominal data it is the category that has the highest frequency count. In interval and ordinal data it is the data item that occurs most frequently. It is unaffected by extreme values. Measures of Central Dispersion How dispersed are spread out the data items are. Range The distance between the top and bottom bottom values in a set of data. The top number minus the bottom number +1. It's affected by extreme values and fails to take into account the distribution of the numbers. Standard deviation Precise measure of dispersion as all the exact values are taken into account. Internal reliability Measure of the extent to which something is consistent with itself. External reliability The extent to which a measure varies from one occasion to another. Low external reliability would mean there is quite a bit of variation over time. Demand characteristics A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of the study or help participants work out what the researcher expects to find out. Researcher bias Anything the investigator does that has an affect on the participants performance in a study other than what was intended. Investigator effects may act as a confounding or extraneous variable. Longitudinal study Study conducted over a long period of time. Often a form of repeated measures design in which participants are assessed over two or more occasions as they get older. However some longitudinal research is not experimental, people may simply be observed for a number of years. Cross-sectional studies One group of participants representing one section of society, for example young people, are paired with participants from another group, for example old people. Inter-rater reliability The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of behaviour. Test retest reliability Used to check external reliability. The same test or interview is given to the same participants on two occasions to see if the same results are obtained. Split half reliability Method of assessing internal reliability by comparing two halves of, for example, a psychological test to see if they produce the same score Concurrent Validity Means of establishing external validity by comparing an existing test or questionnaire with the one you are interested in. predictive validity Correlating the results of a test with some other example of the behaviour that is being tested. Face validity Form of external validity, the extent to which test items look like what the test claims to measure. Content validity Aims to demonstrate that the content of a test on measurement represents the area of interest. Construct validity The extent to which performance on the test measures and identified underlying construct. CT scan Uses a series of x-ray beams passed through the head, creating cross-sectional images of the brain showing the structure but not the function. Pet scan Scanner detects radioactive material that is injected or inhaled to produce an image of the brain. Once in the bloodstream, it flows through the brain, oxygen and glucose accumulate in brain areas that are metabolically active. As glucose is used in the active parts of the brain, the radioactive material breaks down and gives off a neutron and positron. When a positron hits an electron both are destroyed and to gamma rays are released. Gamma-ray detectors record the brain area where the gamma rays are emitted. This method provides a functional view of the brain. MRI Uses detection of radio-frequency signals produced by displaced radio waves in a magnetic field it provides an anatomical view of the brain. Advantages of MRI - No x-rays of radioactive material used. - Provides detailed view of the brain in different dimensions. - Safe, painless, non-invasive. Disadvantages of MRI - expensive to use - cannot be used in patients with metallic devices, like pacemakers. - can't be used with uncooperative or claustrophobic patients. EEG The recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons. fMRI Detects changes in blood flow to particular areas of the brain. Provides both an anatomical and functional view of the brain. Angiography Involves a series of x-rays after dyes injected into the blood. Provides an image of the blood vessels of the brain. [Show Less]
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WJEC AS Business Studies Unit 1 questions and answers, A+ content
Why do people start their own businesses? - To make a profit - To provide a good or service - To fill gap in the market - To turn a hobby into a career... [Show More] or business - To be independent/their own boss What is an entrepreneur? An entrepreneur is somebody who starts and runs a business. Perhaps they make a product or provide a service, the quite possibly may employ somebody to make a profit. Many Entrepreneurs are innovators, they bring new ideas to the market and drive the development of new technologies. What are the key characteristics of an entrepreneur? - A risk taker - Innovative - Initiative - Organised - Hard working - Determined Why create a business plan? 1. Gives an idea if the business will work 2. Gives a clear view of aims and deadlines 3. Part of the capital raising process 4. To monitor progress 5. Allows survival and expansion Drawbacks of using a business plan? - Costs of market research - Hard to protect a source of finance - How reliable is the data? - Unachievable objectives can give false hope - Entrepreneurs have little knowledge of market What are consumer goods? The final product What are capital goods? Used in the production of other good or services What are public goods? Available to everybody, non-excludable and non-rivalry (e.g. Police and Street lighting) What are merit goods? Goods or services that would be under consumed if left to the private sector (e.g. Education and Healthcare) What are demerit goods? Unhealthy or damaging, often subject to a taxes Advantages of international trade - Provides employment - Reduces the risk of closure - New technologies - More revenue for the UK economy - Expansion can can mean the opportunity to benefit from economies of scale Disadvantages of international trade - Competition may be misunderstood - Language barriers - Exchange rate fluctuations - Cannot guarantee same response as home country - Changes in interaction relations may stop trade What is a Multinational country? Businesses that operate in more than one country Advantages of multinational companies - Creates employment - Investment leads to infrastructure development - No export costs - No language barriers - investment to locate given my local government Disadvantages of multinational companies - Increased competition - Can put smaller firms out of business - Deplete natural resources - More resource costs Characteristics of perfect competition - Perfect knowledge of the market - Many suppliers - Price takers - Product is identical/homogenous - No barriers to entry - Normal profit in the long run Characteristics of monopolistic competition - Independent firms - Low barriers - Normal profits in long run - Differentiated products (colour, size, etc.) - Many suppliers - Supernormal profits in the long ru - Market is dynamic Characteristics of an oligopoly - Power to fix prices - Interdependent - Market is dominated by a few large firms - Few barriers to entry (e.g. 3 for 2) - e.g. Tesco, Morrisons, Asda & Sainsburys Characteristics of a monopoly - Controlled by a single producer/seller - Price makers - High barriers of entry/start up costs - Unique products wit no close substitutes - Price discrimination (different prices at different times - e.g. Cinemas) Types of barriers to entry Strategic: - Predatory pricing - Brand loyalty - Aggressive price wars Structural: - High start up costs - Patents - Copyrights Characteristics of a contestable market - Free entry/exit - No sunk costs - Constant threat of new entrants - Perfect information - Firms compete rather than collude - The ability to use the best available technology Reasons to increase market share - Economies of Scale (lower average cost per unit produced) - Customers more likely to repeat purchases (brand loyalty) -Increased bargaining power with suppliers and investors -When sales in a market are slow, investment is needed for growth Reasons not to increase market share - Overall profits may decline - Working at full capacity may affect ability to meet demand - Investigations by Competition Market Authority How do you calculate market share? Total value of sales for individual product ÷ Total Value of sales for whole market × 100 how do you calculate percentage change? (Current year - previous year) ÷ previous year × 100 Advantages of Mass Markets - Greater sales (maximises income) - Large quantities produced (lower costs) - Wider customer base - Brand awareness and loyalty Disadvantages of Mass Markets - Lots of competition - Greater marketing costs - High market research costs - Research and Development costs Advantages of Niche Markets - Less competition (others may target niche) - Specialised product - Less marketing costs - Able to focus on company strengths - Firms can gain expert knowledge Disadvantages of Niche Market - Competition may target & takeover niche - Smaller customer base - Less profit and higher production costs - Not always neat little markets What are the 4 main types of market segmentation? Geographical, Psychographic, Behavioural and Demographic Why conduct market research? - Identify consumer's needs and wants - Monitor competition - Cain feedback and test customer responses - Identify changes in demand - Assess the effectiveness of promotional campaigns Advantages of primary research - Specific to business objectives - Latests and most up to date information Disadvantages of primary research - Expensive and time consuming - Risk of bias Advantages of secondary research - Cheaper and less time consuming -Based on actual sales figures or larger samples Disadvantages of secondary research - Quickly out of date - Not tailored to company objectives What is the public sector? Made up of businesses that are owned and run by the government. It is funded by taxes ( e.g. income tax) and includes organisations such as the NHS, Police, Education and Defence . The role of the public sector is to create a fair and just society. What is the private sector? This is the part of the economy that is operated by businesses owned by shareholders and private individuals. What are the objectives of private sector companies? - To make a profit - Fill a gap in the market - Expand and survive - Increase/gain market share - Keep shareholders happy (through dividends) Advantages of Sole Traders - Be your own boss - Keep all profits for yourself - Easy to set up - Turn a passion into a hobby Disadvantages of Sole Traders - Limited capital for startup - Unlimited liability - Have to do/make all decisions yourself Characteristics of a partnership - Joint ownership of a business (between 2-20 people) - Often found in professions (lawyers & dentists) - Shared responsibilities - Partnership agreement (deed of partnership) Advantages of Partnerships - Easy to set up - Shared responsibility - Increased capital contribution - More skills and expertise - Shared unlimited liability - Less borrowing required Disadvantages of Partnerships - Still have unlimited liability - Some partners may not work as much as they should - Disagreements over decisions - Partners receive a smaller amount of profit for their efforts, than sloe traders - If there is no deed of partnership, then Partnership Act 1890 states that all partners are equal. Advantages of Private Ltd Companies - Limited Liability - Capital can be raised through inviting shareholders - Other businesses are more likely to invest Disadvantages of Private Ltd Companies - Long and expensive legal procedure in start up - Profits are shared among shareholders - Financial information is available to the public Advantages of Public Ltd Companies - Limited Liability - Increased market dominance - Banks and other lenders are more willing to invest, increased capital Disadvantages of Public Ltd Companies - Increased costs in setting up - Anyone can buy shares, increased risk of losing control - Accounts are available to the public What are Charities? - Established with the aim of collecting money from individuals and spending it on a cause - Not established to make a profit, but there is sometimes surpluses - Mainly rely on voluntary donations, but some have retail outlets What are Co-operatives? - An organisation owned by its members - Employees automatically become members and shoppers can if they want to - Members benefit from payments of dividends through money-off vouchers What are Social Enterprises? - Set up to give back to the community they serve - Trade to help solve social problems, improve the communities they operate in and improve the environment - Many aim to make profits from selling goods and services in the open market but instead invest them towards achieving their social objectives What are the key location factors for a business? - Distance from competition - Infrastructure - Level of footfall - Social reasons (historic or family) - Government incentives - Cost of land - Best fit (surf shop at the beach) - Skilled labour/workforce What can cause a movement along the demand curve? Price What can cause a shift in demand? - Income - Changes in fashion - Changes in the price of substitute goods - Advertising campaigns - Government legislation What does price do to the supply curve? Causes a movement What can cause a shift in supply? - Changes in costs (raw materials, etc.) - Weather - Introduction of new technology - Legislation What is price elasticity of demand? Price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of demand to changes in price What happens when a market is Price Elastic? A change in price will cause a more than proportional change in demand - Price goes up, demand falls dramatically! What happens when a market is Price Inelastic? A change in price will cause a less than proportional change in demand - Price decreases, demand increases just a little! How can you calculate elasticity? % change in quantity demanded ÷ % change in price How do you calculate revenue? quantity sold × selling price How do you calculate profit? total revenue - total costs What are fixed costs? Costs that do not change no matter how many products that are produced (e.g. rent) What are variable costs? Costs that change with the level of output (e.g. raw materials, wages) What is contribution? Selling price - Variable costs (per unit) How do you calculate Break Even? Fixed costs ÷ Contribution (per unit) [Show Less]
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theories of crime (wjec level 3 criminology) 100% accurate answers
xyy theory (jacobs) - xyy syndrome is where men have an extra y chromosome - xyy men are said to be more aggressive and violent - jacobs argued that thi... [Show More] s was true as xyy men are overrepresented in prison populations (15 per 1000 in prisons, 1 per 1000 in general population) twin studies (lange & christiansen) - is crime a heritable trait? - testing the concordance rates of criminal activity between mz and dz twins - lange - mz twins had higher concordance rates than dz twins - christiansen - concordance rates were highest in mz male twins and lowest in female dz twins adoption studies (hutchings & mednick) - is crime biological (parents) or nature (adopted parents)? - hutchings and mednick - higher proportions of boys with criminal convictions had biological parents with convictions too - mednick - no relationship between criminal activity and adoptive parents and children atavistic features (lombroso) - born criminal - criminals had atavistic features (e.g. high cheekbones and large ears) - found that 40% of criminal acts were accounted for by atavistic characteristics somatotypes (sheldon) - endomorphs - sociable and relaxed (fat and soft) - ectomorphs - introverted and restrained (thin and fragile) - mesomorphs - aggressive and adventurous (muscular and hard) - mesomorphs most likely to commit crime brain abnormality (raine) - damage to the pre-frontal cortex can change an individual's behaviour - raine studied pet scans of impulsive killers - damage to the pre-frontal cortex was found in the criminals neurochemicals (scerbo & raine) - brain's chemistry can be influenced by diet - low levels of serotonin can cause higher aggression - scerbo and raine (found low serotonin levels in anti-social individuals) - steroids make people violent and increase testosterone social learning theory (bandura) - people learn by watching others' behaviour - bandura's bobo doll experiment - 3 groups (one given an aggressive role model, one given a non-aggressive role model, one control group) - observational learning can take place in the family, in subcultures and media - james bulger case and the child's play 3 theory psychodynamic theory (freud) - behaviour is learnt from when we were a child - our psyche is divided into 3 parts - the id, the ego and the superego - the superego causes us to commit crime - 3 types of superego (weak, strong and deviant) - non-criminals have a balance of all 3 psyche components - bowlby's maternal deprivation theory (stems from oedipus complex) - delinquents are more likely to have a separated relationship with their mothers psychological theory (eysenck) - certain personality types are more predisposed to being criminal - 3 dimensions of personality - extraversion (e), neuroticism (n) and psychotisicm (p) - people who score highly in the epi on these categories are more likely to commit crime marxism (althusser, chambliss, pearce & hall) - see crime inevitable in capitalist society - argue that white collar crimes are ignored - believe that different social classes are policed differently - governments fabricate stats to get public support functionalism (durkheim & merton) - crime is inevitable as not every member is socialised into the same values - crime is functional and is only dysfunctional when rates are too high or low - collectrive sentiments are too weak, anomie will happen - crime strengths social cohesion - deviance is a safety valve for crime - merton's strain theory interactionism (becker & lemert) - becker (official stats are socially constructed) - lemert (primary and secondary deviance) - acts that aren't labelled as deviant (primary) - the deviant's crime becomes their master status (secondary)(e.g. terrorist or rapist) - media demonises these people right realism (murray) - murray - the failed socialisation of the underclass causes crime - zero tolerance policing (e.g. Times Square) left realism (lea & young) - crime lies in inequalities in society - people are motivated by consumerism - broken windows theory - disagree with military policing xyy theory evaluation S: Jacobs found a correlation between XYY sufferers and criminality. S: Adler - argued that violence was partly caused by genetics. W: Genetic abnormalities are very common and widespread so can't explain aggression. W: Focuses too much on genetics. W: Theilgaard - found that aggression wasn't associated with XYY men. twin studies evaluation S: Twin studies are natural experiments. S: Christiansen - supports this view. S: Results have helped prevent crime in vulnerable people. W: Early twin studies lack validity as they decided if the twins were MZ or DZ from appearance not DNA. W: Small samples mean the results aren't representative. W: If twins are brought up in the same environment, this would support the nurture explanation. adoption studies evaluation S: It is easier to separate genetic and environmental factors. S: Studies have found that there is a correlation. W: Age of adoption can affect if the biological parent had more of an influence or not. W: Information about biological parents isn't always available. W: Adoption processes aren't always random. atavistic features evaluation S: First person to give criminology a scientific credibility. S: Goring - found a lower intelligence among convicts. S: Bath Spa University - less attractive people are more likely to be considered guilty. S: Lombroso challenged the idea that criminals were evil. S: Lombroso labelled prisons as 'criminal universities' which is supported by today's recidivism rates. S: His work began the original ideas of profiling. W: Didn't use a control group. W: Lack of accuracy. W: Not everyone with atavistic features is a criminal. W: Goring - found no differences between criminals and non-criminals in behaviour. W: Scientific racism. W: Deterministic. somatotypes evaluation S: Number of other studies have confirmed a correlation. S: A good-sized sample was used. S: Glueck and Glueck - 60% of delinquents were mesomorphs. S: Findings were accurate. W: Can't explain criminality among endo/ectomorphs. W: Doesn't take into account that somatotypes aren't fixed. W: The courts may treat mesomorphs more harshly. social learning theory evaluation S: The experiment did show a correlation. S: Gender as a variable was controlled. S: The study is reliable. W: The study has low natural validity as it is a study of imitation. W: Unethical as it exposes children to violence. W: Cumberbatch - children who had never played with a bobo doll before were 5x more likely to imitate the model . psychodynamic theory evaluation S: Just because the theory is odd, doesn't mean it is wrong. S: Theories have contributed to research about crime. S: The id, ego, superego all relate to parts of the brain (id=limbic system, ego = pre-frontal cortex) W: Psychodynamic theories are no longer accredited. W: Unscientific and unfalsifiable. W: Lack of quantitative data. [Show Less]
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