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WGU pathophysiology D236 question and answers rated A+ (2022/2023)
What is Starling's Law of Capillary forces? How does this explain why a nutritionally deficient child would have edema? Starling's Law describes how fl... [Show More] uids move across the capillary membrane. There are two major opposing forces that act to balance each other, hydrostatic pressure (pushing water out of the capillaries) and osmotic pressure (including oncontic pressure, which pushes fluid into the capillaries). Both electrolytes and proteins (oncontic pressure) in the blood affect osmotic pressure, high electrolyte and protein concentrations in the blood would cause water to leave the cells and interstitial space and enter the blood stream to dilute the high concentrations. On, the other hand, low electrolyte and protein concentrations (as seen in a nutritionally deficient child) would cause water to leave the capillaries and enter the cells and interstitial fluid which can lead to edema. How does the RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System) result in increased blood volume and increased blood pressure? A drop in blood pressure is sensed by the kidneys by low perfusion, which in turn begins to secrete renin. Renin then triggers the liver to produce angiotensinogen, which is converted to Angiotensin I in the lungs and then angiotensin II by the enzyme Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). Angiotensin II stimulates peripheral arterial vasoconstriction which raises BP. Angiotensin II is also stimulating the adrenal gland to release aldosterone, which acts to increase sodium and water reabsorption increasing blood volume, while also increased potassium secretion in urine. 00:39 01:24 How can hyperkalemia lead to cardiac arrest? Normal levels of potassium are between 3.5 and 5.2 mEq/dL. Hyperkalemia refers to potassium levels higher that 5.2 mEq/dL. A major function of potassium is to conduct nerve impulses in muscles. Too low and muscle weakness occurs and too much can cause muscle spasms. This is especially dangerous in the heart muscle and an irregular heartbeat can cause a heart attack The body uses the Protein Buffering System, Phosphate Buffering System, and Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate System to regulate and maintain homeostatic pH, what is the consequence of a pH imbalance Proteins contain many acidic and basic group that can be affected by pH changes. Any increase or decrease in blood pH can alter the structure of the protein (denature), thereby affecting its function as well Describe the laboratory findings associated with metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis and respiratory alkalosis. (ie relative pH and CO2 levels). Normal ABGs (Arterial Blood Gases) Blood pH: 7.35-7.45 PCO2: 35-45 mm Hg PO2: 90-100 mm Hg HCO3-: 22-26 mEq/L SaO2: 95-100% Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis are marked by changes in PCO2. Higher = acidosis and lower = alkalosis Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis are caused by something other than abnormal CO2 levels. This could include toxicity, diabetes, renal failure or excessive GI losses. Here are the rules to follow to determine if is respiratory or metabolic in nature. -If pH and PCO2 are moving in opposite directions, then it is the pCO2 levels that are causing the imbalance and it is respiratory in nature. -If PCO2 is normal or is moving in the same direction as the pH, then the imbalance is metabolic in nature. The anion gap is the difference between measured cations (Na+ and K+) and measured anions (Cl- and HCO3-), this calculation can be useful in determining the cause of metabolic acidosis. Why would an increased anion gap be observed in diabetic ketoacidosis or lactic acidosis? The anion gap is the calculation of unmeasured anions in the blood. Lactic acid and ketones both lead to the production of unmeasured anions, which remove HCO3- (a measured anion) due to buffering of the excess H+ and therefore leads to an increase in the AG. Why is it important to maintain a homeostatic balance of glucose in the blood (ie describe the pathogenesis of diabetes)? Insulin is the hormone responsible for initiating the uptake of glucose by the cells. Cells use glucose to produce energy (ATP). In a normal individual, when blood glucose increases, the pancreas is signaled to produced in insulin, which binds to insulin receptors on a cells surface and initiates the uptake of glucose. Glucose is a very reactive molecule and if left in the blood, it can start to bind to other proteins and lipids, which can lead to loss of function. AGEs are advanced glycation end products that are a result of glucose reacting with the endothelial lining, which can lead to damage in the heart and kidneys. Compare and contrast Type I and Type II Diabetes Type I diabetes is caused by lack of insulin. With out insulin signaling, glucose will not be taken into the cell and leads to high blood glucose (hyperglycemia). Type I is usually treated with insulin injections. Type II diabetes is caused by a desensitization to insulin signaling. The insulin receptors are no longer responding to insulin, which also leads to hyperglycemia. Type II is usually treated with drugs to increase the sensitization to insulin (metformin), dietary and life-style changes or insulin injections. Describe some reasons for a patient needing dialysis AEIOU-acidosis. Electrolytes, Intoxication/Ingestion, overload, uremia. Patients with kidney or heart failure. A build up of phosphates, urea and magnesium are removed from the blood using a semi-permeable membrane and dialysate. AEIOU: A—acidosis; E—electrolytes principally hyperkalemia; I—ingestions or overdose of medications/drugs; O—overload of fluid causing heart failure; U—uremia leading to encephalitis/pericarditis Compare and contrast hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. What are some reasons for a patient choosing one over the other? Hemodialysis uses a machine to pump blood from the body in one tube while dialysate (made of water, electrolytes and salts) is pumped in the separate tube in the opposite direction. Waste from the blood diffuses through the semipermeable membrane separating the blood from the dialysate. Peritoneal Dialysis does not use a machine, but instead injects a solution of water and glucose into the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum acts as the membrane instead of dialysis tubing. The waste products diffuse into the abdominal cavity and the waste solution is then drained from the body. Peritoneal dialysis offers continuous filtration and is less disruption to the patient's daily routines. However, it does require some training of the patient and is not recommended for individuals who are overweight or have severe kidney failure. Hemodialysis provides medical care, but 3 times a week for several hours sitting at a hospital or clinic. Individuals with acute kidney failure are recommended to use hemodialysis. How does homeostasis and maintaining optimal physiological health impact your wellbeing? Homeostasis acts to create a constant and stable environment in the body despite internal and external changes. Proteins and other cellular processes require optimal conditions in order to carry out their functions. Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, glucose levels, etc. can have negative effects on health, so it is vital for mechanisms that regulate homeostasis to function properly for maintaining good health Differentiate between Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity ? The innate immune system encompasses physical barriers and chemical and cellular defenses. Physical barriers protect the body from invasion. These include things like the skin and eyelashes. Chemical barriers are defense mechanisms that can destroy harmful agent. Examples include tears, mucous, and stomach acid. Cellular defenses of the innate immune response are non-specific. These cellular defenses identify pathogens and substances that are potentially dangerous and takes steps to neutralize or destroy them. Adaptive immunity is an organism's acquired immunity to a specific pathogen. As such, it's also referred to as acquired immunity. Adaptive immunity is not immediate, nor does it always last throughout an organism's entire lifespan, although it can. The adaptive immune response is marked by clonal expansion of T and B lymphocytes, releasing many antibody copies to neutralize or destroy their target antigen 00:02 01:24 What is a way that Adaptive Immunity can recruit innate immunity? The innate immune response to microbes stimulates adaptive immune responses and influences the nature of the adaptive responses. Conversely, adaptive immune responses often work by enhancing the protective mechanisms of innate immunity, making them more capable of effectively combating pathogenic microbes Why are some infections harder on children while other infections are harder on the elderly? Children have not been exposed to many pathogens yet, so they lack memory cells and have not built-up immunity yet. The elderly have a depleted naïve T cell population from years of battling infections, so the likelihood of getting a match is less. Describe how and why our injury response results in the signs of redness, swelling, heat, and pain? (Be sure to use chemokines, histamine, and vasodilation in your response.) An injury causes an inflammatory response which is responsible for the redness, swelling, heat and pain. Upon injury, cells on the surface begin to release chemokines which act as messengers that something has happened. Mast cells are also alerted to release histamines which travel to the endothelial cells of capillaries and causes vasodilation, which is related to swelling and redness. Vasodilation also causes the capillaries to become leaky which allows for histamines, chemokines and even pathogen particles to enter the blood stream where they are met by neutrophils (non-specific) which start to adhere to the capillary wall and squeeze through the leaky holes (diapedesis or extravasation) to phagocytose pathogens and damaged cells. Dendritic cells just under the surface of skin are also activated to phagocytose foreign particles. Other B cells, T cells (specific) and the complement system also squeeze through the capillary wall to create an area of congestion. Explain dominant vs recessive genetic diseases. What is a "carrier" in recessive genetic diseases? The human genome contains 23 pairs of chromosome (22 autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes). The pairs are homologous and contain the same genes in the same order. This means that every gene has a copy, one inherited from your mother and the other from your father. Not all versions of a gene (alleles) are treated the same by the cell. Some are expressed over others. A dominant gene is a gene that is expressed, even if you only have one copy. The dominant gene will be expressed over the recessive gene, which must have two copies to be expressed. In a dominant genetic disease, all it takes is one copy of the disease to have the disease. Recessive genetic diseases require that the individual gets two copies of the gene to have the disease. Someone who is a carrier for a recessive genetic disease is healthy, but contains a copy of the disease gene, potentially passing it to their offspring. Describe how to determine the probability of clinical outcomes given information about the parents (eg two heterozygous carriers of sickle cell disease). Punnett Squares can be used to determine the potential probabilities of certain traits being passed to offspring. If you know the genotypes of each parent (ie homozygous or heterozygous for the trait), you can determine the possible outcomes. Heterozygous means that the parent has one copy of each gene, homozygous means the parent has the same copy for each gene (either both dominant genes or both recessive genes). What are some of the consequences of alcohol exposure in pregnancy? ND-PAE (neurobehavioral disorder-prenatal alcohol exposure) can cause birth defects and developmental disabilities (fetal alcohol spectrum disorders-FASDs). Affects thinking and memory, causes behavioral issues and linked to trouble with everyday functioning What are some of the distinctive features associated with trisomy 21, or Down's Syndrome? Why is increased maternal age a risk factor? Distinct features of Down's syndrome include intellectual disabilities and common physical features that include slanted eyes, flattened bridge of the nose and forehead, short in stature, poor muscle tone, loose joints and single palmar crease. As a woman's eggs age, they can have mistakes in meiosis potentially leading to a nondisjunction event causing trisomy 21 What is Spina Bifida? Why are relative deficiencies in Folic acid or B12 associated with Spina Bifida? Failure to close the neural tube early in gestation due to low folic acid and B-12. These vitamins help activate DNA synthesis in the developing fetus in the first 4 weeks of pregnancy, that are responsible for closing up the spinal column. Three types of spina bifida. 1) spina bifida occulta (most common, less severe) 2) Meningocele (least common) 3) Myelomeningocele (most severe). Essential Question: How does the body's cellular responses and adaptations react to disruptions? The body uses the RAAS system to regulate blood volume and pressure, the immune response reacts to fight infection, the inflammatory response reacts to injury Describe how calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, and calcitriol (Vitamin D) work together to maintain normal blood calcium levels. Vitamin D: UV light stimulates formation of cholecalciferol, which is hydroxylated in the liver and the kidney into the active form of Vitamin D, calcitriol. Calcitriol stimulates absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the GI tract in the intestine and phosphate in the kidney. Calcitriol increases the calcification of osteoid. Calcitriol also stimulates the formation of bone by raising the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the blood. Low vitamin D levels can cause hypocalcemia, which stimulates the parathyroid gland to release parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone calcium to increase blood calcium levels. PTH also stimulates osteoblasts to form bone. PTH stimulates kidneys to reabsorb calcium into the blood and to synthesize vitamin D. When blood calcium gets too high, the thyroid is stimulated to release calcitonin (suppresses osteoclast activity and calcium will be used to form bone). Describe the function of osteocytes within lacunae of bone Osteocytes absorb nutrients from the bloodstream and distribute them within the bone structure. Osteocytes absorb waste products from the bone and excrete them into the bloodstream. Describe bone remodeling ? Which cells are involved in this process and what is their function? Osteoclasts breakdown older bone structure and secrete the release calcium into the bloodstream. Osteoblasts absorb calcium from the bloodstream and use it to build new bone structure. Working together, these two cell types allow for regeneration of damaged bone structure. Describe the process of articular degeneration. Which cells are involved in this process and what is their function? Articular Degeneration is the thinning and breakdown of the articular cartilage that covers joints and acts as a lubricant and cushion. This articular cartilage is comprised of chondrocytes in a matrix of collagen and aggrecan. The chondrocytes produce enzymes and other proteins that slowly break down and reform the matrix, allowing for regeneration. Stress caused by being overweight or physical trauma can cause chondrocytes to speed up the matrix breakdown process relative to the reformation process, leading to a thinning of the articular cartilage. What is rickets? How does it develop? Who usually develops rickets? How can rickets be treated? Rickets is, primarily, due to a deficiency of vitamin D (due to sunlight exposure), which leads to a deficiency of blood calcium. Rickets can lead to bone weakness, deformity, and susceptibility to fracture. Rickets results from a failure to calcify osteoid due to low amounts of blood calcium and low vitamin D (typically). There are many different types of rickets. Children, especially under age 2, are most likely to be diagnosed with rickets. Infants can develop rickets if their mother's diet was low in vitamin D or in calcium, and breastmilk is low in vitamin D, so mother and baby need to supplement vitamin D (and calcium). The best way to treat rickets is to prevent it by taking supplements of vitamin D and calcium, eating food/drink containing vitamin D/calcium, and getting sufficient sunlight. Physical therapy with weight-bearing exercise can help to treat rickets, as well. It is a multi step process to make the active form of Vit D How does Denosumab treat osteoporosis? Denosumab is a monoclonal antibody that binds to osteoclasts and inhibits their Calcium- withdrawing capability. Distinguish between open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) and hip replacement surgery. Open reduction and internal fixation involves "surgical opening' and insertion of hardware into the patient that assists with maintaining proper bone alignment during the healing process. Hip replacement involves replacement of a fractured hip joint with a prosthesis. What is degenerative disc disease? What are some of the anatomical features of degenerative disc disease? What are some symptoms of lumbar vs. cervical degenerative disc disease? Degenerative disc disease (DDD) is a disorder of the intervertebral discs. When the discs deteriorate, they cause improper alignment of the spinal column. Some anatomical issues that result are thinning discs, herniated discs (nucleus pulposus leaking through annulus fibrosus cartilage), bulging discs, and degenerated discs (possible with the formation of osteophytes). Lumbar DDD results in pain in the buttock and thighs that gets worse with sitting, bending, lifting or twisting; weakness and numbness in the lower body, such as sciatica. Cervical DDD can result in chronic neck pain that radiates to shoulders and down the arms, weakness of arms/hands, and numbness and tingling in arms/hands. What is sepsis ? What are symptoms of sepsis, and how can sepsis be treated? Sepsis is an infection of the blood. Fever, chills, and increased pressure in the affected area are symptoms, as well as the area of injury will be warm, edematous, and erythematous. If the infection is advanced, a purulent (pus-like) discharge can develop, as well as a foul odor. The patient is treated with IV antibiotics in the hospital. When they are allowed to go home, they are given oral antibiotics. In the context of musculoskeletal injury, as part of treatment, the debridement of the wound and removal of orthopedic hardware will be needed to clean up infected region around injury, if it exists. How does compartment syndrome develop? Which part of our body tends to develop compartment syndrome? How do patients typically recognize they may need to seek medical assistance for rhabdomyolysis? What is the most sensitive laboratory test for rhabdomyolosis? Because the fascia around the muscles, nerves and blood vessels do not stretch, compartments surrounded by fascia cannot tolerate swelling or bleeding internally. When this happens, tissue pressure can exceed perfusion pressure, and compartment syndrome develops. The area can feel very hard due to the pressure. It is common in the lower leg and the forearm, and can be present in several potential body compartments. Several issues develop, and then exacerbate, the compartment syndrome, including constriction of veins, then arteries and compressed nerves. These lead to tissue necrosis, ischemia, leaky capillaries, and edema. This gives even higher pressure and can lead to increase Mb in the blood as muscles break down (rhabdomyolysis). Mb in the kidneys can lead to renal toxicity and tea-colored urine, which is, typically, a patient's first indication that they have rhabdomyolysis. The most sensitive laboratory test is an elevated creatine What is a pulmonary embolism? What is a fat embolism? When might a patient develop a pulmonary embolism? When might a patient develop a fat embolism? How are they treated? A pulmonary embolism is a blood clot that has obstructed an artery in the lungs. A fat embolism occurs when fat globules released from marrow of a fractured bone block microvasculature in the lung or other organs, such as the brain. A pulmonary embolism may often develop due to orthopedic surgery and in individuals with low mobility and blood hypercoagulation tendency. Anticoagulant may be administered during orthopedic surgery, and DVT may be treated through thrombolysis or pulmonary thrombectomy. A fat embolism is often related to a deep fracture of a marrow-containing bone, such as the femur. Early stabilization of marrow- containing bone fractures can help prevent fat embolisms, and fat embolisms may be treated by flushing the blood with solutions containing albumin to increase blood vessel volume and to dissolve the fat globules with the aid of the albumin. Choose three of the seven roles (of your choice) of the integumentary system. Describe the vital physiological function that each role serves. Provide at least two examples that illustrate the function for each role you have chosen. 1) Indicator of general health. Changes in the color of skin or nailbeds can indicate diseases of heart, liver, or blood cell synthesis. Examples: see slides provided. Anemia /shock: pallor. Oxygen deficit: blue skin. 2) Barrier protection. Protect body from chemical and environmental hazards. The stratum corneum is a barrier to antigens and is waterproof. 3) Thermoregulation. Maintain a constant body temperature. Temperature sensors in the dermis send signal to thermoregulatory center in hypothalamus. If warm, will sweat and have capillary dilation. If cold, hairs stand up, surface vessels constrict, and body shivers. 4) Immunological surveillance. Non-specific protection from antigens. Keratinocytes secrete keratin and regulate immune response. 5) Excretion/absorption. Regulate composition and volume of sweat, and help to manage total fluid volume. Many substances pass into and out of body through skin. See slides for more. 6) Mirror for internal disease processes. External signs of internal immune response/inflammatory processes, such as wheals, blisters, and bullae. 7) Production of Vitamin D. Regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Role in bone development. [Show Less]
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WGU Pathophysiology D236 question and answer well solved
Describe how your body responds to an infection. T cells produce cytokines, which stimulate B cells. B cells produce antibodies. Identify role of D... [Show More] NA changes in congenital abnormalities. Mutations in genes or chromosomal abnormalities 00:51 01:24 How does development disrupts congenital abnormalities? Alterations of DNA Describes factors that disrupt homeostasis and how disruptions affect wellbeing. (ex) Fluid and electrolyte shifts can cause n/v or dysrhythmias. Explain RAAS Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system 1. Reduce blood flow causes kidneys to release renin > produce angiotensin I > converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II > vasoconstriction > release aldosterone > kidneys conserve sodium and water > Result less water lost in urine and blood pressure maintained. DKA increased anion gap, decreased HCO3 How do kidneys compensate for alkalosis retain H and excrete HCO3 Untreated acidosis leads to an increase in which electrolyte? Potassium West Nile Virus Transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. Severe signs and symptoms; high fever, headache and stiff neck Lyme disease Tick-borne disease caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. Erythema infectiosum a febrile upper respiratory illness in a child followed by the sudden appearance of red, flushed cheeks, "fifth disease" Obesity ad diabetes are risk factors for having a child with _____. Spina bifida 00:02 01:24 Trousseau's sign arm/carpal spasm associated with hypocalcemia Cause and sign of spina bifida results from failure of neural tube to close. sign - fluid filled sac on lower back. hemophilia is more common in males Prenatal exposure to alcohol includes ND-PAE, decreased brain function, FAS Connective vs muscle tissue disorders Connective- RA, Scleroderma, Lupus Muscle - MS, Muscular dystrophy, Myasthenia Gravia Describe Lupus Inflammatory disorder characterized by joint pain and butterfly rash Describe Myasthenia Gravis It is an autoimmune disorder where antibodies attack own Ach receptors. This causes weakness of skeletal muscles over the course of the day, along with ptosis, double vision, and difficulty swallowing. dermatitis inflammation of the skin eczema noninfectious, inflammatory skin disease characterized by redness, blisters, scabs, and itching decubitus ulcer sore caused by lying down for long periods of time Fungal infections superficial, localized skin conditions or deep tissue infections caused by exposure to spores may or may not be transmitted benign neoplasm noncancerous growths, stationary, distinct borders malignant neoplasm uncontrolled new tissue growth, irregular borders, spreads Osteoporosis The loss of bone mass often due to age, causing the bones to become porous, brittle, and easily fractured. osteomalacia disease marked by softening of the bone caused by calcium and vitamin D deficiency myoglobin red pigment that stores oxygen in muscle cells Bursa fluid-filled sac that allows for easy movement of one part of a joint over another Rickets a vitamin D deficiency in children, resulting in soft bones Degenerative disk disease A condition in which an intervertebral disk loses its normal structural integrity as a result of wear and tear, acute or repeated injuries or aging Paget disease Chronic inflammation of bones, resulting in thickening and softening of bones, that can occur in any bone but most commonly affects the long bones of the legs, the lower spine, the pelvis, and the skull communiuted fracture splintered into many pieces Three types of skin cancer 1. Basal cell carcinoma 2. Squamous cell carcinoma 3. Melanoma basal cell carcinoma Most common and least severe type of skin cancer; often characterized by light or pearly nodules. Rarely metastasize, most common on face due to sun exposure squamous cell carcinoma Type of skin cancer more serious than basal cell carcinoma; often characterized by scaly red crusted papules or firm nodules. Melanoma The most serious form of skin cancer, caucasian males at highest risk, usually black or brown lesion consequences when integumentary system is disrupted impaired immunity types of burns Superficial (1st degree) - red/painful Partial-thickness (2nd degree) -wet/pink/painful Full-thickness (3rd degree) -white/swollen/no pain Viltigo localized loss of skin pigmentation characterized by milk-white patches ischemic CVA vs hemorrhagic CVA ischemic - clot vs hemorrhagic - blood subdural hematoma collection of blood under the dura mater Alzheimer's disease vs parkinson's disease Alz - affects language and memory Park - affects all executive functioning Huntington's disease Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30. involves involuntary muscle movement Sclerosis abnormal condition of hardening disorders that cause vision loss glaucoma - loss of pheripheral vision, cataracts - cloudy vision, retinal detachment - floaters, flashes, curtain vision kyphosis excessive outward curvature of the spine, causing hunching of the back. disorders that cause hearing loss Meniere's disease - changes in fluid in tube of inner ear (imbalance and vertigo), Otitis media - middle ear infection Predisposing factors of ischemic stroke a fib, carotid stenosis, cerebral arteriosclerosis rheumatoid arthritis A chronic systemic disease characterized by inflammation of the joints, stiffness, pain, and swelling that results in crippling deformities. Causes elevated WBC counts. cerebral contusion the bruising of brain tissue as the result of a head injury that causes the brain to bounce against the rigid bone of the skull; symptoms: ringing in ears, severe headache, n/v. TIA vs CVA TIA = -result when a cerebral artery is temp blocked and decreases blood flow to brain Stroke= artery completely blocked leading to death of brain and permanent loss of certain functions multiple sclerosis A chronic, irreversible disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech aneurysm ballooning of a weakened portion of an arterial wall thrombus vs embolus Thrombus = clot in arteries embolus = dislodged traveling clot in arteries, blocks blood flow Artherosclerosis Hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to buildup of cholesterol plaques 1.endothelial injury 2.foam cell formation 3.fatty streak formation angina pectoris chest pain, which may radiate to the left arm and jaw, that occurs when there is an insufficient supply of blood to the heart muscle myocardial infarction the occlusion of one or more coronary arteries caused by plaque buildup (heart attack) endocaritis inflammation of the inner lining of the heart peridcarditis inflammation of the pericardium (sack surrounding heart) benign vs malignant hypertension benign - "essential hypertension", chronic vascular damage due to sodium retention. malignant - acute vascular damage due to renin release communicable disease A disease that can be spread from one person or species to another. infectious disease A disease that is caused by a pathogen and that can be spread from one individual to another. myocardial infarction causes damage to arteries of : brain, retina, [Show Less]
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WGU Pathophysiology D236 question and answers 100% correct
Describe how your body responds to an infection. T cells produce cytokines, which stimulate B cells. B cells produce antibodies. Identify role of D... [Show More] NA changes in congenital abnormalities. Mutations in genes or chromosomal abnormalities 00:45 01:24 How does development disrupts congenital abnormalities? Alterations of DNA Describes factors that disrupt homeostasis and how disruptions affect wellbeing. (ex) Fluid and electrolyte shifts can cause n/v or dysrhythmias. Explain RAAS Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system 1. Reduce blood flow causes kidneys to release renin > produce angiotensin I > converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II > vasoconstriction > release aldosterone > kidneys conserve sodium and water > Result less water lost in urine and blood pressure maintained. DKA increased anion gap, decreased HCO3 How do kidneys compensate for alkalosis retain H and excrete HCO3 Untreated acidosis leads to an increase in which electrolyte? Potassium West Nile Virus Transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. Severe signs and symptoms; high fever, headache and stiff neck Lyme disease Tick-borne disease caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. Erythema infectiosum a febrile upper respiratory illness in a child followed by the sudden appearance of red, flushed cheeks, "fifth disease" Obesity ad diabetes are risk factors for having a child with _____. Spina bifida 00:02 01:24 Trousseau's sign arm/carpal spasm associated with hypocalcemia Cause and sign of spina bifida results from failure of neural tube to close. sign - fluid filled sac on lower back. hemophilia is more common in males Prenatal exposure to alcohol includes ND-PAE, decreased brain function, FAS Connective vs muscle tissue disorders Connective- RA, Scleroderma, Lupus Muscle - MS, Muscular dystrophy, Myasthenia Gravia Describe Lupus Inflammatory disorder characterized by joint pain and butterfly rash Describe Myasthenia Gravis It is an autoimmune disorder where antibodies attack own Ach receptors. This causes weakness of skeletal muscles over the course of the day, along with ptosis, double vision, and difficulty swallowing. dermatitis inflammation of the skin eczema noninfectious, inflammatory skin disease characterized by redness, blisters, scabs, and itching decubitus ulcer sore caused by lying down for long periods of time Fungal infections superficial, localized skin conditions or deep tissue infections caused by exposure to spores may or may not be transmitted benign neoplasm noncancerous growths, stationary, distinct borders malignant neoplasm uncontrolled new tissue growth, irregular borders, spreads Osteoporosis The loss of bone mass often due to age, causing the bones to become porous, brittle, and easily fractured. osteomalacia disease marked by softening of the bone caused by calcium and vitamin D deficiency myoglobin red pigment that stores oxygen in muscle cells Bursa fluid-filled sac that allows for easy movement of one part of a joint over another Rickets a vitamin D deficiency in children, resulting in soft bones Degenerative disk disease A condition in which an intervertebral disk loses its normal structural integrity as a result of wear and tear, acute or repeated injuries or aging Paget disease Chronic inflammation of bones, resulting in thickening and softening of bones, that can occur in any bone but most commonly affects the long bones of the legs, the lower spine, the pelvis, and the skull communiuted fracture splintered into many pieces Three types of skin cancer 1. Basal cell carcinoma 2. Squamous cell carcinoma 3. Melanoma basal cell carcinoma Most common and least severe type of skin cancer; often characterized by light or pearly nodules. Rarely metastasize, most common on face due to sun exposure squamous cell carcinoma Type of skin cancer more serious than basal cell carcinoma; often characterized by scaly red crusted papules or firm nodules. Melanoma The most serious form of skin cancer, caucasian males at highest risk, usually black or brown lesion consequences when integumentary system is disrupted impaired immunity types of burns Superficial (1st degree) - red/painful Partial-thickness (2nd degree) -wet/pink/painful Full-thickness (3rd degree) -white/swollen/no pain Viltigo localized loss of skin pigmentation characterized by milk-white patches ischemic CVA vs hemorrhagic CVA ischemic - clot vs hemorrhagic - blood subdural hematoma collection of blood under the dura mater Alzheimer's disease vs parkinson's disease Alz - affects language and memory Park - affects all executive functioning Huntington's disease Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30. involves involuntary muscle movement Sclerosis abnormal condition of hardening disorders that cause vision loss glaucoma - loss of pheripheral vision, cataracts - cloudy vision, retinal detachment - floaters, flashes, curtain vision kyphosis excessive outward curvature of the spine, causing hunching of the back. disorders that cause hearing loss Meniere's disease - changes in fluid in tube of inner ear (imbalance and vertigo), Otitis media - middle ear infection Predisposing factors of ischemic stroke a fib, carotid stenosis, cerebral arteriosclerosis rheumatoid arthritis A chronic systemic disease characterized by inflammation of the joints, stiffness, pain, and swelling that results in crippling deformities. Causes elevated WBC counts. cerebral contusion the bruising of brain tissue as the result of a head injury that causes the brain to bounce against the rigid bone of the skull; symptoms: ringing in ears, severe headache, n/v. TIA vs CVA TIA = -result when a cerebral artery is temp blocked and decreases blood flow to brain Stroke= artery completely blocked leading to death of brain and permanent loss of certain functions multiple sclerosis A chronic, irreversible disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech aneurysm ballooning of a weakened portion of an arterial wall thrombus vs embolus Thrombus = clot in arteries embolus = dislodged traveling clot in arteries, blocks blood flow Artherosclerosis Hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to buildup of cholesterol plaques 1.endothelial injury 2.foam cell formation 3.fatty streak formation angina pectoris chest pain, which may radiate to the left arm and jaw, that occurs when there is an insufficient supply of blood to the heart muscle myocardial infarction the occlusion of one or more coronary arteries caused by plaque buildup (heart attack) endocaritis inflammation of the inner lining of the heart peridcarditis inflammation of the pericardium (sack surrounding heart) benign vs malignant hypertension benign - "essential hypertension", chronic vascular damage due to sodium retention. malignant - acute vascular damage due to renin release communicable disease A disease that can be spread from one person or species to another. infectious disease A disease that is caused by a pathogen and that can be spread from one individual to another. myocardial infarction causes damage to arteries of : brain, retina, heart, kidneys. what is expected in right sided heart falure JVD [Show Less]
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WGU patho D236 - Goodluck ! question and correct solution 2022/2023
Turner syndrome A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromos... [Show More] ome is deleted. Tay-Sachs Disease A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele for a dysfunctional enzyme leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth, followed by death within a few years. 00:41 01:24 Down syndrome A condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 Diabetes Insipidus Antidiuretic hormone is not secreted adequately, or the kidney is resistant to its effect. The serum sodium is often elevated due to excess free water losses. In diabetes insipidus, your blood glucose levels are normal, but your kidneys can't properly concentrate urine. Cardiac Valve Disease Process In heart valve disease, one or more of the valves in your heart doesn't work properly. Regurgitation (or leakage of the valve). When the valve(s) do not close completely, it causes blood to flow backward through the valve. This reduces forward blood flow and can lead to volume overload in the heart. Stenosis (or narrowing of the valve). When the valve(s) opening becomes narrowed, it limits the flow of blood out of the ventricles or atria. The heart is forced to pump blood with increased force to move blood through the narrowed or stiff (stenotic) valve(s). Cardiac Valve Complications Heart valve disease can cause many complications, including: * Heart failure. * Stroke. * Blood clots. * Heart rhythm abnormalities. * Death. Respiratory Illness from bats Viral hemorrhagic fevers are spread by contact with infected animals or insects. The viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fevers live in a variety of animal and insect hosts. Most commonly, the hosts include mosquitoes, ticks, rodents, or bats. Some viral hemorrhagic fevers can also be spread from person to person. Anemia Different types of anemia include: Anemia due to vitamin B12 deficiency Anemia due to folate (folic acid) deficiency Anemia due to iron deficiency Anemia of chronic disease Hemolytic anemia Idiopathic aplastic anemia Megaloblastic anemia Pernicious anemia Sickle cell anemia Thalassemia Acid Base Balance - lung and kidney compensation The kidneys have two main ways to maintain acid-base balance - their cells reabsorb bicarbonate HCO3− from the urine back to the blood and they secrete hydrogen H+ ions into the urine. By adjusting the amounts reabsorbed and secreted, they balance the bloodstream's pH. Pyelonephritis Inflammation of the renal pelvis and the kidney Prostate cancer Cancer of the prostate gland usually occurs in men middle-aged and older. Artery response during blood loss. Does cell shrink or swell ? Vasoconstriction 00:02 01:24 Marfan Syndrome - Autosomal dominant trait This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern , which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. At least 25 percent of Marfan syndrome cases result from a new mutation in the FBN1 gene Spina Bifida Not having enough folic acid during pregnancy is one of the most important factors that can increase the chances of having a child with spina bifida. Bursitis Inflammation of a bursa sac. Inflammation of the fluid-filled pads (bursae) that act as cushions at the joints. Sprains and Strains A sprain occurs when you overextend or tear a ligament while severely stressing a joint.A strain occurs when tendons (bands at the end of muscles that connect muscles to bones) get stretched or pulled away from the bone. Endometriosis # Painful periods (dysmenorrhea). Pelvic pain and cramping may begin before and extend several days into a menstrual period. #Lower back and abdominal pain. #Pain with intercourse. Pain during or after sex is common with endometriosis. #Pain with bowel movements or urination. You're most likely to experience these symptoms during a menstrual period. #Excessive bleeding. You may experience occasional heavy menstrual periods or bleeding between periods (intermenstrual bleeding). #Infertility. Sometimes, endometriosis is first diagnosed in those seeking treatment for infertility. #Fatigue, diarrhea, constipation, bloating or nausea, especially during menstrual periods. Ulcerative colitis Ulcerative colitis is an autoimmune disease of the large intestine, specifically the colon and rectum. It affects the mucosal layer of the large intestine. #Aortic stenosis/regurgitation #Mitral stenosis/regurgitation Mitral valve stenosis occurs when the mitral valve in the heart narrows, restricting blood flow into the main pumping chamber. The mitral valve may also leak, causing blood to flow back through the valve each time the left ventricle contracts. This condition is called mitral valve regurgitation. Backflow of blood is caused by failure of the heart's mitral valve to close tightly. Mitral valve regurgitation is a condition in which the heart's mitral valve does not close tightly, which allows blood to flow backward in the heart. How could the provider distinguish ulcerative colitis from Crohn disease? Ulcerative colitis only affects the large intestine, while Crohn's disease can affect the entire length of the gastrointestinal tract. While diarrhea can occur in both, ulcerative colitis is more likely to present with blood in the stool. A colonoscopy will show pseudopolyps for ulcerative colitis but will show a cobblestone appearance for Crohn's disease. Pancreatitis Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas that causes pancreatic insufficiency, malabsorption, and diabetes. Pancreatitis can be an acute or chronic disorder. With acute pancreatitis, there is a sudden, short-term episode of inflammation. With chronic pancreatitis, the gland undergoes repeated episodes of inflammation and gradual deterioration. Acute pancreatitis can be caused by #Gallstones #Excessive alcohol consumption #High blood triglycerides #Abdominal injury, #Certain medications and toxins. Peritonsillar abscess A complication of tonsillitis in which the infection spreads behind the tonsils. A peritonsillar abscess occurs when a collection of pus forms and infection spreads beyond the tonsils into the neck and chest. Swollen tissues can block the airway. Symptoms include fever, difficulty swallowing, and severe throat pain. Antibiotics can treat an early infection. Sometimes a collection of pus needs to be drained by a procedure called incision and drainage. Ulcers The constant acid irritation leads to ulceration of the gastrointestinal cells, also termed peptic ulcer. The constant acid irritation leads to ulceration of the gastrointestinal cells, also termed peptic ulcer. Duodenal ulcers are a type of peptic ulcer that forms in the upper small intestine. The most common symptom of a duodenal ulcer is a pain in the mid to upper stomach region, especially if this pain intensifies when the stomach is empty or if the pain wakes you up in the middle of the night. Esophageal ulcers are ulcers that develop inside of the esophagus. These ulcers can typically be treated with changes to lifestyle and diet, coupled with certain medications and other treatments. Cranial nerves *I Olfactory -Sensory- Smell *II Optic - Sensory - Vision *III Oculomotor - Motor - Extraocular movements (EOMs) and pupil response *IV Trochlear - Motor - EOMs *V Trigeminal - Mixed (motor and sensory)- Facial sensation, Masseter muscle control of chewing *VI Abducens - Motor - EOMs *VII Facial - Mixed (motor and sensory)- Facial expressions and taste over anterior two-thirds of tongue *VIII Auditory or Vestibulocochlear -Sensory- Hearing and equilibrium *IX Glossopharyngeal - Mixed (motor and sensory) -Elevation of pharynx in swallowing, taste over posterior one-third of tongue, and salivation *X Vagus - Mixed (motor and sensory) - Gag reflex and parasympathetic control of body * XI Accessory - Motor - Turn the head and shrug *XII Hypoglossal - Motor - Tongue movement Multi factorial diseases The majority of diseases are the result of multifactorial genetic influences. Diseases such as hypertension, heart disease, diabetes mellitus (DM), and most cancers are caused by a combination of genetics and environment or a combination of several defective genes working, or not working, together. In these diseases, an individual inherits one or more gene defects that predispose them to a disorder, and then environmental or behavioral triggers such as diet, exposure to toxins, or sedentary lifestyle contribute to disease development. For example, multifactorial inheritance factors are involved in the development of type 1 and type 2 DM: Fluid and Electrolytes Imbalances of the body's biological, and chemical constituents, such as electrolytes, can cause cell injury. For example, high sodium levels in the bloodstream, termed hypernatremia, cause intracellular fluid depletion (cellular dehydration) and reversible cell shrinkage. The symptoms associated with this include #Lethargy #Weakness #Irritability #Confusion Fractures Osteoporosis results in a loss of bone mass. A change in bone mineralization is characteristic of osteomalacia and rickets rather than osteoporosis. The decrease in bone density makes bones more fragile and susceptible to fracture. Ida's osteoclasts are breaking down more bone than osteoblasts are rebuilding. [Show Less]
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WGU Pathophysiology from the study guide questions and answers 2022/2023 rated A+
Anabolism The phase of metabolism where simple substances are made into complex ones. Catabolism Breakdown of substances into energy ... [Show More] 00:12 01:24 Epithelial and connective tissues what tissues most often develop tumors Papilloma What type of benign tumor is a wart? (Papilloma, Lipoma, Myoma, Chondroma) Lipoma What benign tumor begins in the fatty tissue? (Papilloma, Lipoma, Myoma, Chondroma) Myoma What benign tumor is also called a fibroid? (Papilloma, Lipoma, Myoma, Chondroma) Chondroma What benign tumor is of cartilage cells? (Papilloma, Lipoma, Myoma, Chondroma) Sarcoma What type of tumor can be found anywhere and arises from connective tissue? Fevers and night sweats What are early signs of lymphoma? radiation therapy Planting seeds into a malignant prostate and irradiating to reduce damage to healthy tissue is called: vesicle Skin lesion described as a small fluid filled elevation of the skin (eg blister) [vesicle, pustule, macule, papule] pustule Skin lesion described as an elevation of the skin containing white blood cells and cell debris [vesicle, pustule, macule, papule] 00:02 01:24 macule Skin lesion described as a spot not raised or depressed (eg freckle) [vesicle, pustule, macule, papule] papule Skin lesion described as a firm raised area of skin (eg pimple] [vesicle, pustule, macule, papule] excoriation Skin lesions described as a scratch into the skin. laceration Skin trauma- rough, jagged wound caused by skin tearing: fissure Skin trauma- crack in the skin ulcer skin trauma - sore with disintegration and death of affected tissue superficial burn Burn involving only the epidermal layer of the skin. Blisters and pain at the burn site. How do superficial partial thickness burns present? shingles Painful vesicular lesions caused by varicella. normal treatment is antiviral medications and corticosteroids to decrease pain. superficial Tissue destruction involving only the epidermal layer of the skin is called: Pruritus and urticarial What are two signs of allergic skin reactions? They are all autoimmune diseases involving the skin What do Pemphigus, scleroderma and lupus erythematosus have in common? Disturb equilibrium What can damage to the semicircular canals in the ears do? Placing a myringotomy tube in the ear How can otitis media be prevented? Presbycusis What is age related hearing loss called? Speaking in clear low pitched tones What can alleviate age -related hearing loss (Presbycusis)? arthrocentesis, laparoscopic repairs, and fixation of screws What can treatment of joint disorders include? Gout Form of arthritis described as a higher level of uric acid crystals accumulating in joint Septic arthritis Form of arthritis that may result from an invasive procedure, organisms carried to the joint by the blood stream. Osteoarthritis Form of arthritis that may be the results of aging and repeated trauma most often in weight-bearing joints. Rheumatoid arthritis Form of arthritis described as an inflammation and overgrowth of synovial fluid causing severe pain; joints stiffen and become useless Myasthenia gravis What can be described as chronic muscular fatigue caused by defect at the neuromuscular junction? By taking antacid medications, and using medications that decrease production of hydrochloric acid. How can gastroesophageal reflux disease be treated? Chronic pancreatitis What can be characterized with severe pain and blood tests that show elevated serum amylase? Pancreatitis What impacts the digestive process by leading to enzyme imbalances? Testing blood serology How is viral hepatitis identified? Bowel fucntion What does chronic hepatitis often exhibit changes in? an antigen-antibody reaction What could arise if an Rh negative patient experiences a second exposure to Rh positive blood? Hemophilia A bleeding disorder caused by deficiency of a clotting factor. Leukemia A neoplastic disease characterized by a large increase in white blood cells. Thalassemia A group of hereditary disorders causing impaired hemoglobin synthesis. Aplastic anemia A bone marrow failure characterized by a decreased red blood cell production. Vitamin K What vitamin is required for effective blood clotting? Diet, prescribed diuretics, regular exercise What are three recommendations for the treatment of hypertension? Shock What can described as confusion, anxiety, and hypotension? Atrophy What is described as a decrease in the size of a muscle from disuse? Strains What is described as pain and stiffness caused by overuse? Sprains What is described as pain and swelling caused by the tearing of ligaments? Muscular distrophy What is described as the deterioration of muscles that have intact nerve function? Cramps What are described as strong, painful muscle contractions? Shoulder joint dislocation What is described as acutely painful in the arm and chest area and often results in the affected arm being longer than the mate? Helicobacter pylori What causes a gastrointestinal disorder known as a peptic ulcer? Inflammation of the gallbladder What is characterized by abdominal pain and elevated bilirubin? Amylase What digests starch? Lipase What digests lipids? Trypsin What digests proteins? Nucleases What digests nucleic acids? [Show Less]
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