WGU C785 Final Exam Questions and Answers Latest 2022/2023
What is the basic structure of an amino acid? What do they look like? - correct answer amino
... [Show More] group (NH2 or NH3), carboxyl group (COO or COOH), alpha carbon (C), and variable group
How do you identify the 3 different types of side chains: non-polar/hydrophobic, polar, and charged? - correct answer Non-polar/hydrophobic - end with CH or "can't have" water. Polar - end with OH, SH, or NH. Charged - end with a charge
what kinds of bonds do each of the 3 different types of side chains make? - correct answer ionic, hydrophobic/non-polar, charged
What are the 4 levels of protein structure? - correct answer Primary - linear structure, Secondary - Folded into helix or pleated sheet caused by hydrogen bonding, tertiary - 3D structure caused by side chain interactions, quaternary - 1+ amino acid chains combine = multiple subunits MUST have 1+ subunit
What enviormental change breaks each type of bond? - correct answer hydrophobic - temperature change, ionic - salt or decreased pH, hydrogen - temperature, change in pH, disulfide - reducing agents
what type of amino acid side chain leads to protein aggregration? - correct answer hydrophobic bonds
how do environmental changes affect protein folding? - correct answer Extreme temp can cause hydrogen bonds to break apart = malformation of protein folding
how do mutations affect protein structure? - correct answer Can cause structure to change. Protein loses form = loses function. May form a different protein.
What is an electron? - correct answer Negatively charged atom on outer ring for bonding
What is energy: - correct answer Power derived fro chemical interaction
what are covalent bonds? - correct answer chemical bond, atoms share 1+ valence electrons
what is an ionic bond? - correct answer bond between positive and negative
what is a hydrogen bond? - correct answer weak bond between positive and negative
with an amino? - correct answer piece of amino acid, NH2 or NH3
what is a carboyxl? - correct answer piece of amino acid, COO or COOH
What is hydrophobic? - correct answer Doesn't like water, end with CH
what is hydrophilic? - correct answer Water loving, end with OH, NH, or SH
what is disulfide bond? - correct answer strongest bond between reduction agents, formed between SH's.
what are zwitterions? - correct answer amino with positive and negative charges = overall charge of zero
what is a polypeptide - correct answer polymer of amino acids
What is dehydration synthesis? - correct answer Process of forming peptide bonds
what is hydrolysis? - correct answer adding water to destroy bonds
what is an alpha helix? - correct answer twisted secondary structure, formed by hydrogen bonds
what is a beta sheet? - correct answer folded second structure shape, formed by hydrogen bonds
what is denaturation? - correct answer loss of shape duet o interruption of chemical bonds; occurs via extreme salt, temp, pH
what is aggregation? - correct answer clumping of inner or outer cellular proteins caused by misfolded proteins leading to diseases such as Alzheimers, ALS, Parkinson's
how do enzymes catalyze reactions? - correct answer bind with substrates to decrease activation energy required and decrease reaction rate
how do enzymes affect reaction rate and activation energy? - correct answer decrease activation energy and decrease reaction rate
what are the 4 steps of the enzymatic cycle? - correct answer enzyme recognizes substrate, substrate attracts the enzyme; enzyme-substrate complex is formed; enzyme-product complex formed; product is released, enzyme recycled
how do environmental changes affect enzymes? - correct answer High heat, pH change, high salt concentration, and reducing agents can cause an enzyme to lose its form/lose function
what is a competitive inhibitor? - correct answer Mimics substrate and takes its place on the active binding site
what is a noncompetitive inhibitor? - correct answer Binds to allosteric site causing active site to change shape = preventing substrate from binding with enzyme
what molecules increase/build up or decrease given a specific inhibitor? A -> (enzyme 1) -> B -> (enzyme 2) -> C -> (enzyme 3) -> D. Pretend Enzyme 2 is inhibited. - correct answer Inhibitor would cause a build up for product B, decrease product C. Enzyme 3 and product D would not be created.
what is substrate? - correct answer the substance on which an enzyme acts
what is a product? - correct answer result of a reaction
what is an intermediate? - correct answer products produced in an enzyme pathway before final product
what is an active site? - correct answer location where substrate binds with enzyme
what is enzyme specificity? - correct answer Enzymes bind with certain substrate or type of substrate to create a certain reaction
what is induced fit? - correct answer Enzyme changes shape in enzyme-substrate complex to facilitate formation of enzyme-product complex
what is kinase? - correct answer Enzyme, adds phosphate group via phosphorlation
what is phosphatase? - correct answer enzyme, removes phosphate group via dephosphorylation
with is an allosteric site? - correct answer secondary site on an enzyme an inhibitor binds to via non-competitive inhibition
what is competitive inhibition? - correct answer enzyme substrate and inhibitor complex compete to bind with enzyme's active site. no product formed when inhibitor binds with enzyme.
what is non-competitive inhibition? - correct answer inhibitor binds to allosteric site, not active site. Changes shape of active site, preventing substrate from binding and making product
what is feedback inhibition? - correct answer End product sends feedback to beginning of enzyme pathway inhibiting 1st enzyme via noncompetitive inhibition
what nucleotides/bases are used in DNA? what are their abbreviations/full names? - correct answer C - cytosine, G - guanine, A - adenine, T - thyamine
what nucleotides/bases are used in RNA? - correct answer C - cytosine, G - guanine, U - uracil, A - adenine
which nucleotides base-pair together in DNA? - correct answer T-A, G-C
which nucleotides base-pair together in RNA? - correct answer U-A, G-C
how to we make complementary DNA? (i.e. coding to temple et reverse) - correct answer Taking coding DNA, write in reverse, then pair them up to make template.
Template DNA, write in reverse, then pair up to make coding
how do we make mRNA? - correct answer template DNA to mRNA by switching back and forth OR coding DNA to mRNA by switching out T's for U's
which strand of DNA is complementary to mRNA? - correct answer Template DNA
how do we make protein? - correct answer DNA -> RNA -> Protein
which type of nucleotide sequence is used and in which direction? - correct answer RNA is used 5' to 3'
what is the relationship between mRNA and tRNA? - correct answer tRNA is complementary to mRNA
how does mRNA splicing allow use to create multiple proteins from a single gene/mRNA? - correct answer Alternative splicing allows for all introns to be cut and some exons = multiple proteins form from same MRNA
what factors increase gene expression? - correct answer Decreased methylation, increased acetylation, Widely spaced neucleosomes, exposed promoter, use of transcription factors, use RNA polymerase
what factors decrease gene expression? - correct answer Increased methylation/decreased acetylation, tightly packed nucleosomes, hidden promoter, no transcription factors, no RNA polymerase
what steps do you take to determine what type of mutation occurred between a normal and mutated DNA/RNA sequence? - correct answer look between the two strands, determine what changed, name the mutation
What are the types of mutations? - correct answer silent, missense, nonsense, frameshift
what type of DNA damage does each repair pathway fix? - correct answer base excision - single nucleotide, nucleotide excision repair - multiple nucleotides, missmatch - mistakes made in DNA replication, homologous recombination/nonhomologous end joining - double stranded breaks
what are the steps of excision repair? - correct answer Recognize damage, cut damage out, recreate DNA strand, glue DNA strand back together
what are the steps of mismatch repair? - correct answer Remove mismatched base, try again
what are the steps of homologous recombination and nonhomologous end joining? - correct answer HR uses DNA from unbroken strand to fix broken strand, NHEJ reconnects broken pieces, may have pieces missing
what are the steps of PCR? - correct answer denature, anneal, elongation/extension
how do we denature DNA in PCR? - correct answer heat to 95 degrees C to separate DNA strands
how do we anneal DNA? - correct answer primers base pair with DNA strands
how do we elongation/extend DNA? - correct answer DNA polymerase attach primers and synthesize new DNA strands
what are the components of PCR? - correct answer target DNA, heat stable DNA polymerase, nucelotides (dNTP), primers
how are primers used to assist in a PCR reaction? - correct answer Primers allow DNA polymerase to bind to target DNA
how do you calculate the number of copies of DNA produced by specific number of PCR cycles? - correct answer Each cycle produces doubles the amount of DNA
how does PCR compare to normal DNA replication in the cell? - correct answer RNA primers used instead of DNA in normal replication. Helicase enzymes separate DNA strands instead of heat in normal replication. DNA polymerase is not heat stable in normal replication.
what is gene expression? - correct answer process by which info coded in DNA creates proteins and RNAs
What are nucleotides? - correct answer building blocks of nucleic acids
what is antiparallel? - correct answer refers to arrangement of DNA double helix (run in opposite directions)
what is complementary? - correct answer predictable counterparts
what is template DNA? - correct answer DNA strand, provides pattern for ordering via complementary base pairing in RNA transcript
what is coding DNA? - correct answer nontemplate strand of DNA, same sequence as mRNA except has T instead of U
what is replication? - correct answer processing of copying DNA molecules via DNA synthesis
what is transcription? - correct answer creation of RNA using info from DNA
What is RNA polymerase? - correct answer enzyme, links ribonucleotides to growing RNA chain during transcription
what is a promoter? - correct answer sequence of DNA that binds with RNA, encourages RNA transcription
what is a transcription factor? - correct answer proteins that bind to promoter regions, help initiate transcription
what is mRNA? - correct answer type of RNA, created via DNA template, specifies primary structure of protein
what is translation? - correct answer creation of polypeptide using info in the mRNA
what is tRNA? - correct answer RNA that brings amino acids to ribosomes during creation of polypeptide
what are ribosomes? - correct answer molecular complex, assist with orderly linking of amino acids/polypeptide chains
what are codons? - correct answer nucleotide triplet of DNA or RNA. Basic genetic code. Specifies type of amino acid or termination signal
what are anticodons? - correct answer nucleotide triplet at one end of tRNA. Base pairs with complementary codon on mRNA
what is splicing? - correct answer parts of transcript are removed and others are reconncected
what are introns? - correct answer pieces of noncoding that are removed during RNA processing
what are exons? - correct answer pieces of coding that stay with RNA during processing - ARE NOT DISCARDED
what are histones? - correct answer Protein; high proportion and charged amino acid that binds with DNA. Plays key role in chromatin structure.
what is a nucleosome? - correct answer basic bead like unit of DNA.
what is methylation? - correct answer presence of methyl groups on DNA bases, adding of methyl groups to DNA bases
what is acetylation? - correct answer attachment of acetyl groups to certain amino acids of proteins (mainly histones)
what is the structural difference between myoglobin and hemoglobin? - correct answer myoglobin - primary, secondary, tertiary, single subunit protein (1 heme, 1
iron, 1 O2). hemoglobin - primary, secondary, teriary, quaternary, 4 subunit protein (4 heme, 4 iron, 4 O2)
what are the functional differences between myoglobin and hemoglobin? - correct answer myoglobin - found in muscle, stores O2 in muscle, higher affinity for O2. hemoglobin - found in blood, delivers O2 to tissues in need, decreased affinity for O2
what are the structural properties of the tense state of hemoglobin? - correct answer deoxygenated hemoglobin = deep purple color. heme is bent; subunits move farther apart. decreased affinity of O2 binding.
what is the structural properties of hemoglobin in the relaxed state? - correct answer Bright red color. Heme is planar with subunits moved closer, increased affinity of O2 binding
what causes hemoglobin to change between relaxed and tense state? - correct answer O2 binding with hemoglobin in tense state causing subunits to move in closer and change hemoglobin to relaxed state
how does carbon monoxide affect the structure of hemoglobin? - correct answer locks HgB in R-state, and takes up space on HgB for binding to O2
how does it cause carbon monoxide poisoning? - correct answer keeps HgB in R- state, HgB does not release O2. HgB has higher affinity for O2, but CO has higher affinity than HgB for O2.
steps of DNA replication to protein? - correct answer DNA -> transcribed -> mRNA -
> translation -> protein
what is an okazaki fragment? - correct answer Okazaki fragments are short molecules of single-stranded DNA that are formed on the lagging strand during DNA replication.
how does 2,3-BPG (2,3-DPG) affect structure of hemoglobin? - correct answer reduces hemoglobin's affinity for O2
what is the natural function of 2,3-BPG? - correct answer increases release of O2 in atmosphere with decreased oxygen. efficiently deliver oxygen to fetus.
what are we measuring when we measure pH? - correct answer number of H+ protons in blood
what level of pH is blood considered acidic? - correct answer Below 7.2
what level of pH is blood considered basic? - correct answer above 7.4
what factors change pH in blood? - correct answer Increased or decreased CO2, increased or decreased H+
how to do changes in pH affect hemoglobin's structure? - correct answer Increased CO2/Increased pH = T-state, Decreased CO2/Decreased pH = R-state
what is a heme? - correct answer subunit of hemoglobin/myoglobin
what is affinity - correct answer stickiness of oxygen binding
what is cooperativity? - correct answer binding of O2 to deoxygenated blood
what is bicarbonate? - correct answer carbon dioxide in disguise, outcome of CO2/H2O + carbonic anhydrase
what is carbonic anhydrase? - correct answer enzyme; converts CO2 into bicarb and proton
what do chaperones do? - correct answer assist with protein folding
difference between fetal and adult hemoglobin? - correct answer fetal hemoglobin has higher affinity for oxygen than maternal hemoglobin. fetal has alpha and gamma forms of hemoglobin while adults have alpha and beta
Right left shift curve for decreased pH? increased pH? - correct answer Decreased pH = right shift curve. Increased pH = left shift curve.
what can show an MI? - correct answer myoglobin - can show muscle damage
Examples of monosaccharides - correct answer glucose, fructose, galactose
examples of disaccharides - correct answer sucrose, lactose, maltose
examples of polysaccharides - correct answer starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
how do the different linkages between monomers of polysaccharrides affect how they are digested? - correct answer B linkages - enzymes that break down B linkages, unable to break down A linkages. A linkages - enzymes only able to break down A linkages.
structure and function of ATP? - correct answer 3 phosphate groups + adenosine. provide energy to cell
real-life scenarios that would like to insulin release from pancreas? - correct answer eating carb rich meal, eating something excessively sugary
how does insulin help reduce blood sugar level? - correct answer promote glycogen formation from excess glucose, stimulates glucose uptake by cells
how does glut4 aid in this process? - correct answer protein channels open in presence of insulin, allow glucose to pass from bloodstream to cell
what are some real life scenarios that would lead to glucagon release from the pancreas? - correct answer blood glucose level getting too low due to fasting
how can diabetes lead to glycation and AGEs? - correct answer diabetes is insulin resistance or lack of insulin production = increased blood sugar. glucose links with proteins when there is too much. glycated collagen has decreased elasticity of veins
= damage to capillaries, eyes, kidneys, nerves
What is catabolism? - correct answer breaking down molecules
what is anabolism? - correct answer building up
what is a carbohydrate? - correct answer macromolecule. a type of sugar.
What is a monosaccharide? - correct answer single sugar
What is a disaccharide? - correct answer double sugar
What is a polysaccharide? - correct answer macromolecule; made from hundreds to thounsands of monosaccharides. stores as glycogen and startch.
what are alpha linkages? - correct answer seen in animal polysaccharides. look the same in linkages.
what is a beta linkage? - correct answer seen in plant polysaccharides. face in opposite directions.
what is insulin? - correct answer hormone; lowers blood sugar
what is glucagon? - correct answer hormone; raises blood sugar
what is glycogen? - correct answer form of glucose storage in liver
What is glycogenesis? - correct answer formation of glycogen from glucose
what is glut4? - correct answer glucose transporter
what is glycogenolysis? - correct answer glycogen breakdown, release of glucose
what is aerobic metabolism? - correct answer ATP production using oxygen, breaks down fats and carbs.
what is cellular respiratoin? - correct answer cathbolic pathways of aerobic and anaerboic; break down molecules by using electron trainsport chain for ATP production
what is glycolysis? - correct answer breakdown of glucose, creates 2 new ATP and 2 pyruvate
What is the citric acid cycle? - correct answer creation of 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 and 2 CO2 molecules in each turn of the cycle
what is ETC? - correct answer electron transport chain; accepts electrons from FADH2 and NADH, uses their energy to pump protons to intermember space
what does NAD/NADH do? - correct answer transports electrons of the highest energy to and from complex 1
what does FAD/FADH2 do? - correct answer transports electrons to/from complex 2
What is substrate level phosphorylation? - correct answer ATP synthesis by direct transfer of phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate
What is oxidative phosphorylation? - correct answer production of ATP using energy derived from ETC reactions; 3rd stage of cellular respiration
what is anaerboic metabolism? - correct answer atp production without oxygen
what is fermentation? - correct answer catabolic process; makes limited amounts of atp without ETC, produces lactic acid or eythl alcohol
what is gluconeogensis? - correct answer formation of glucose from non- carbohydrate sources
what is the cori cycle? - correct answer fermentation + gluconeogenesis, way to make 2 ATP in muscle
what is metformin? - correct answer diabetic medication for Type 2 DM. Decreased gluceoneogensis in liver/increases glucose uptake by muscle
what is glycation? - correct answer colvalent bond of a sugar to a protein
What are advanced glycation end products (AGEs)? - correct answer sugars bonded with proteins; effects collagen by decreasing elasticity of blood vessels = damage to nerves, kidneys, and eyes
what are the roles of NADH and FADH2? - correct answer transport electrons from CAC to ETC
how is NADH generated in glycolysis? - correct answer glycolysis consumes 2 NAD to create 2 NADH
how are NADH and FADH2 generated in the citric acid cycle? - correct answer each turn of CAC creates 3 NADH molecules and 1 FADH2
how does the ETC use NADH and FADH2? - correct answer NADH and FADH2 bring high energy electrons to complex 1 and 2; ETC uses their energy to power the proton pump
which complexes accept NAHD and FADH2? - correct answer NADH -> complex 1, FADH2 -> complex 2
what is the role of the electrons in the ETC? - correct answer provide energy to pump protons from mitochondrinal space to intermembrane space
what is the role of protons in atp product? - correct answer protons provide energy to make atp as they cross the inner membrane
what enyme ultimately makes atp? - correct answer atp synthase
what is the role of oxygen in the ETC? - correct answer oxygen binds with exhausted electrons from complex 4 to create water
how do fats and proteins enter aerobic metabolism? - correct answer proteins -> amino acids -> pyruvate or acteyl CoA or CAC. fats -> fatty acids -> acetyl CoA
what are the two different fates of pyruvate? - correct answer pyruvate can be convereted to ethyl alcohol or lactic acid in fermenttaion or acetyl CoA in aerobic metabolism
what factors affect the use of pyruvate by the cell? - correct answer presence of oxygen in the catabolism
how are aerobic and anaerobic metabolism the same? - correct answer both use glucose, both create ATP and CO2, both use glycolysis in the cytoplasm
how are anaerobic and aerobic metabolism the different? - correct answer aerobic metabolism utilizes oxygen and can produce more ATP (36). Anaerobic metabolism does not use oxygen and creates 2 ATP
which aeroboic and anaerobic pathways are controlled by insulin? - correct answer Insulin inhibits: gluconeogensis, glycogenolysis
Insulin promotes: Glycolysis, glycogenesis
which aerobic and anarobic pathways are controlled by glucagon? - correct answer Glugcagon promtes: gluconeogensis, glycogenolysis
Glucagon inhibits: glycolysis, glycogensis
what are the differences between type 1 and types 2 diabetes? - correct answer Type 1 is an autoimmune disorder effeting beta cells in pancreas, unable to produce insulin. Type 2 is when target cells are not responding to insulin; insulin is produced, but cells aren't receptive/glucose remains elevated
how does metformin treat diabetes? - correct answer decreases glucogenesis in the liver and increases glucose uptake by the muscle cells
how does metformin relate to glut4 and gluconeogensis? - correct answer glut4 enables glucose to pass from blood to cell in presence of insulin. metformin
increases presence of glut4 or makes it more responsive; decreases gluconeogensis in liver.
how does length of a fatty acid affect its melting point and physical state at room temp? - correct answer shorter the fatty acid = lower melting point, liquid at room temp. longer the fatty acid = higher melting point, solid at room temp
how do we label the different carbons and bonds in fatty acid? - correct answer alpha, beta, or omega carbons/bonds and single or double bonds. *alpha bond links with carboxyl group, beta joins alpha and beta together*
how do we count the carbons in a full structure of a fatty acid? - correct answer from the omega end
how do we count carbons in a structure formula? - correct answer start at end, work your way with smalle groups to write mathematical equation
counting carbons in a zig-zag struture? - correct answer more simplified; carbons at the points (or bends) of zig-zag structure
what are the structural differences between saturated and unsaturated fats? - correct answer saturated fats do not have double bonds between carbons while unsaturated fats do
how does affect melting point and physical state at room temp of unsaturated/saturated fats? - correct answer saturated fats are mostly solid at room temp while unsaturated fats are mostly liquid at room temp
how can I recognize structure of triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids? - correct answer triglycerides - 3 fatty acid chains and 1 glycerol. phospholipids - 2 fatty acid tails and 1 phosphate head. cholesterol - 4 member ring
Functions of cholesterol, phospholipid, and triglycerides? - correct answer cholesterol - membrane buffer/maintain integrity of membrane. phospholipid - major component of cell membrane. triglyceride - ATP storage
how do we break down a triglyceride? - correct answer digested by stomach and small intestine by enzumes such as lipases by using hydrolysis
where in the cell does fatty acid breakdown occur? - correct answer matrix of mitochondria
what happens to the different components of the triglyceride? - correct answer broken into glycerol and fatty acids. picked up by epithelial cells.
how do we break down a fatty acid? - correct answer beta oxidation
where in the cell does beta oxidation take place? - correct answer Fatt acetyl CoA molecules enter mitochondrial matrix and begin beta oxidation cycle
what are the 3 products of beta oxidation? - correct answer 1 acetylCoA, 1 NADH, 1 FADH2
how do we calculate the number of acetylCoA produced from a fatty acid? - correct answer number of carbons in a fatty acid divided by 2
how do we calculate the number of rounds it takes to break it down completely? - correct answer one less than the number of acetylCoA moleules produced
how do we calculate the amount fo ATP produced? - correct answer number of acetylCoA molecules mulitplied by 14
what happens to the products of beta oxidation after they are produced? - correct answer enter ETC for further ATP production
how and why are ketone bodies produced? - correct answer produced by breaking down fatty acids in liver cell's mitochondria; produced when body has decreased carbs or increased fatty acids for energy needs. Ketones make 22 ATP each.
**alternative energy form** ***Seen with Type 1 DM, starvation, alcoholism***
what is the molecule use for fatty acid synthesis? - correct answer acetyl-COA
how is acetyl-COA exported from the mitochondria to the cytosol? - correct answer must pair with oxaloacetate to make citrate, cross into cystol, break apart to become acetylCOA again
what is the comitted step of fatty acid synthesis? - correct answer formation of malonyl COA by acteyl COA carboxylase **needs citrate and CO2**
which fatty acid metabolism pathways are controlled by insulin? - correct answer Insulin encourages lipogensis
which fatty acid metabolism pathways are controlled by glucagon? - correct answer glucagon encourages lipolysis
what are the components of the plasma membrane? - correct answer phospholipids
how do cells maintain fluidity of the plasma membrane when moved to colder or warmer temperatures? - correct answer ratio of saturated/unsaturated fatty acids acting as buffer
what does it mean for a nutrient to be essential? - correct answer must come from the diet
what are the 3 pathways of anerobic metabolism? - correct answer glycolysis, fermentation, gluconeogensis
where in the cell does each pathway take place? - correct answer Glycolysis - cytoplasm, Fermentation - cytoplasm, Gluconeogensis - liver
what are the products of each anaerobic pathway? - correct answer glycolysis - 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 H; fermentation - 2 lactate, 2 NAD; gluconeogensis - 1 glucose
whatis the role of fermentation in regards to NAD/NADH? - correct answer fermentation utilized by cells to regenerate NAD
what are at least 3 different molecules that can be used as substrates of gluconeogensis? - correct answer lactate, acteyl COA, glycerol, aminoacids
how much atp is used in gluconeogensis? - correct answer 6 ATP is used
what is the net outcome of atp in the cori cycle? - correct answer Net loss of 4 ATP
how does glucagon help increase blood glucose? - correct answer glucagon promotes release of glucose from energy stores such as liver's glycogen
what are the 3 pathways of aerobic metabolism? - correct answer glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain + oxidative phosphorylation
where in the cell do the aerobic pathways take place? - correct answer glycolysis - cytoplasm, citric acid cyle - mitochondrial matix, oxidative phosphorylation/ETC - mitochondrinal inner membrane
what molecules are the "ins" of each aerobic pathway? - correct answer Glycolysis
- glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD, 4 ADP. CAC - acetylCOA, NAD, FADh, H+. ETC - NADH, FADH2
what molecules are the products of the aerobic pathways? - correct answer glycolysis - 2 pyruvate, 4 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 ADP; CAC - NADH, CO2, FADH2, ATP; ETC - NAD, FAD, ATP
how do the products of the aerobic pathways become substrates for the next pathways? - correct answer pyruvate from glycolysis turn into AcetylCOA during pyruvate oxidation. Acetyle COA enters CAC producing "carrier" NADH and FADH2 that enter the ETC
how is atp generated in glycolysis? - correct answer breaks on 6 carbon glucose into 2 3-carbon pyruvates and produces net total of 2 new ATP
how is ATP generated in the ETC? - correct answer uses energy from the electrons to pump protons and create proton gradient - the energy source for ATP synthase to make ATP
how many ATP are generated in each aerobic pathway? - correct answer glycolysis
- 2 ATP, CAC - 2 ATP, ETC - 26 to 28 ATP
What are the fat soluble vitamins? - correct answer A, D, E, K
what are the two essential fatty acids and how do we recognize that a fatty acid is essential? - correct answer omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids. by looking to see where the double carbon is.
how can you recognize the structure of a eicosanoid? - correct answer arachidonric acid - 20 carbon fatty acid, omega 6 fatty acid. Looks like incomplete oblong circle in zig-zag formation
what are the functions of eicosanoid? - correct answer inflammation, pain, fever, blood pressure, blood clotting, and reproduction
how is the function of eicosanoid affected by aspirin? - correct answer ASA targets eicosanoid production, specifically cox enzymes. decrease prostaglandin production of pain and inflammation
what is a saturated fatty acid? - correct answer fatty acid without double bonds within hydrocarbon chain
what is an unsaturated fatty acid? - correct answer fatty acid with one or more double bonds within hydrocarbon chain
What is a triglyceride? - correct answer a lipid made of one glycerol and three fatty acids
what is cholesterol? - correct answer a steroid; found in animal membranes. has a tetracyclic ring, acts as buffer.
what is a phospholipid? - correct answer similiar to triglycerides; has two fatty acids and one phosphate. love and hates H20
what is a micelle? - correct answer spherical single layer of phospholipids; transport fatty acids, vitamins, and cholesterol
what is an adipocytes? - correct answer fat cells
what is lipase? - correct answer enzyme that catalyzes triglyceride breakdown
what is lipolysis? - correct answer breakdown of lipids
what is beta oxidation? - correct answer fatty acid breakdown in mitochondria to 1 acetyle COA, 1 NADH, and 1 FADH2
what are ketone bodies? - correct answer alternative energy form; comes from fatty acid breakdown
what is ketoacidosis? - correct answer accumulation of too many ketones within the body
what is MCADD? - correct answer defect in enzyme used for beta oxidation; need to avoid fasting, eat slow release carbs
what is fatty acid synthesis? - correct answer linking of acetylCOA repeatedly to make new fatty acids in the cytoplasm
what is oxaloacetate? - correct answer Intermediate that couples with acetyl Co-A to form citrate
what is citrate? - correct answer Bridge between carb and fatty acid metabolism; important for fatty acid synthesis
what is amphipathic? - correct answer molecules that are hydrophilic and hydrophobic
what is the phospholipid bilayer? - correct answer polar heads interact with watery environment; nonpolar tails remain inside to avoid water. controls in/out of cell.
what is the plasma membrane? - correct answer boundary of every cell, acts as selective barrier, regulates chemical composition
what is a glycolipid? - correct answer lipid + sugar; bases for A, B, and O blood types
what is a glycoprotein? - correct answer sugar + protein; basis for A, B, and O blood types
what is an essential fatty acid? - correct answer omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids, must be eat thru diet
what is an eicosanoid? - correct answer class of lipids derived from essential fatty acids; act as local hormones generated as needed; control fever/pain/BP/reproduction/blood coagulation
what is an arachidonic acid? - correct answer precursor to ecosanoids
what is chylomicron? - correct answer Lipid transport globule composed of fats mixed with cholesterol and coated with proteins
what is a cis fat? - correct answer have both hydrogen atoms on the same side of the double bond; have a kind or bend in the carbon chain, make it difficult for the fatty acids to pack together
what is a trans fat? - correct answer hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond; trans fatty acids can pack tightly like saturated fats = higher melting point
example of cis fat? - correct answer unsaturated natural oils
example of trans fat? - correct answer margarine; raises blood cholesterol levels and increases risk of heart disease
what makes LDL? - correct answer high cholesterol
what is cholesterol needed for? - correct answer synthesize vitamin D in the skin, cholic acid, steroid hormones
what don't RBCs have? - correct answer mitochondria
what supplies glucose to RBCs? - correct answer cori cycle
why does a runner eat high carbs a day before a race? day of? - correct answer day before - gluconeogensis building up for race day; day of - glycolysis because its burned right away [Show Less]