Preface 1
Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology 2
1.1 Understanding Science 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2
1.1.1 What Is Science? 3
1.1.2 Features of
... [Show More] Science 3
1.1.3 Science Versus Pseudoscience 4
The Skeptic’s Dictionary 5
KEY TAKEAWAYS 6
EXERCISES 6
1.2 Scientific Research in Psychology 6
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 6
1.2.1 A Model of Scientific Research in Psychology 7
1.2.2 Who Conducts Scientific Research in Psychology? 8
Scientific Psychology Blogs 9
1.2.3 The Broader Purposes of Scientific Research in Psychology 9
KEY TAKEAWAYS 10
EXERCISES 10
1.3 Science and Common Sense 11
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 11
1.3.1 Can We Rely on Common Sense? 11
Some Great Myths 12
1.3.2 How Could We Be So Wrong? 12
KEY TAKEAWAYS 13
EXERCISE 14
1.4 Science and Clinical Practice 14
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 14
Empirically Supported Treatments 15
KEY TAKEAWAYS 16
E X ER C IS ES 16
Chapter 2 Getting Started in Research 17
2.1 Basic Concepts 18
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 18
2.1.1 Variables 18
2.1.2 Sampling and Measurement 19
2.1.3 Statistical Relationships Between Variables 19
2.1.3.1 Differences Between Groups 20
2.1.3.2 Correlations Between Quantitative Variables 21
2.1.3.3 Correlation Does Not Imply Causation 23
“Lots of Candy Could Lead to Violence” 24
KEY TAKEAWAYS 25
EXERCISE 25
2.2 Generating Good Research Questions 26
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 26
2.2.1 Finding Inspiration 26
2.2.2 Generating Empirically Testable Research Questions 27
2.2.3 Evaluating Research Questions 29
2.2.3.1 Interestingness 29
2.2.3.2 Feasibility 30
KEY TAKEAWAYS 31
EXERCISE 31
2.3 Reviewing the Research Literature 32
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 32
2.3.1 What Is the Research Literature? 32
2.3.1.1 Professional Journals 33
2.3.1.2 Scholarly Books 35
2.3.2 Literature Search Strategies 35
2.3.2.1 Using PsycINFO and Other Databases 35
2.3.2.2 Using Other Search Techniques 36
2.3.2.3 What to Search For 37
KEY TAKEAWAYS 38
EXERCISE 38
Chapter 3 Research Ethics 39
3.1 Moral Foundations of Ethical Research 39
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 39
3.1.1 A Framework for Thinking About Research Ethics 40
3.1.2 Moral Principles 41
3.1.2.1 Weighing Risks Against Benefits 41
Was It Worth It? 42
3.1.2.2 Acting Responsibly and With Integrity 42
3.1.2.3 Seeking Justice 43
“They Were Betrayed” 44
3.1.2.4 Respecting People’s Rights and Dignity 44
3.1.3 Unavoidable Ethical Conflict 44
KEY TAKEAWAYS 45
EXERCISE 46
3.2 From Moral Principles to Ethics Codes 46
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 46
3.2.1 Historical Overview 46
Ethics Codes 48
3.2.2 APA Ethics Code 48
APA Ethics Code 49
3.2.2.1 Informed Consent 53
3.2.2.2 Deception 54
3.2.2.3 Debriefing 55
3.2.2.4 Nonhuman Animal Subjects 55
3.2.2.5 Scholarly Integrity 56
KEY TAKEAWAYS 57
EXERCISES 57
3.3 Putting Ethics Into Practice 58
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 58
3.3.1 Know and Accept Your Ethical Responsibilities 58
3.3.2 Identify and Minimize Risks 58
3.3.3 Identify and Minimize Deception 60
3.3.4 Weigh the Risks Against the Benefits 60
3.3.5 Create Informed Consent and Debriefing Procedures 61
3.3.6 Get Approval 62
3.3.7 Follow Through 62
KEY TAKEAWAYS 63
EXERCISES 63
Chapter 4 Theory in Psychology 64
4.1 Phenomena and Theories 65
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 65
4.1.1 Phenomena 65
Some Famous Psychological Phenomena 66
4.1.2 Theories 67
4.1.2.1 What Is a Theory? 67
4.1.2.2 What Are Theories For? 68
4.1.2.3 Organization 69
4.1.2.4 Prediction 70
4.1.2.5 Generation of New Research 71
4.1.2.6 Multiple Theories 71
Where Do Multiple Personalities Come From? 72
KEY TAKEAWAYS 73
EXERCISES 73
4.2 The Variety of Theories in Psychology 73
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 73
4.2.1 Formality 74
Formal Theories in Psychology 74
4.2.2 Scope 75
4.2.3 Theoretical Approach 76
KEY TAKEAWAY 77
EXERCISE 78
4.3 Using Theories in Psychological Research 78
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 78
4.3.1 Theory Testing and Revision 78
4.3.1.1 Overview 78
4.3.1.2 Constructing or Choosing a Theory 80
4.3.1.3 Deriving Hypotheses 80
4.3.1.4 Evaluating and Revising Theories 81
4.3.2 Incorporating Theory Into Your Research 82
KEY TAKEAWAYS 84
EXERCISE 84
Chapter 5 Psychological Measurement 85
Do You Feel You Are a Person of Worth? 86
5.1 Understanding Psychological Measurement 86
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 86
5.1.1 What Is Measurement? 87
5.1.2 Psychological Constructs 87
The Big Five 88
5.1.3 Operational Definitions 89
5.1.4 Levels of Measurement 90
KEY TAKEAWAYS 92
EXERCISES 92
5.2 Reliability and Validity of Measurement 93
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 93
5.2.1 Reliability 93
5.2.1.1 Test-Retest Reliability 93
5.2.1.2 Internal Consistency 94
5.2.1.3 Interrater Reliability 96
5.2.2 Validity 96
5.2.2.1 Face Validity 97
How Prejudiced Are You? 97
5.2.2.2 Content Validity 98
5.2.2.3 Criterion Validity 98
5.2.2.4 Discriminant Validity 99
KEY TAKEAWAYS 100
EXERCISES 100
5.3 Practical Strategies for Psychological Measurement 101
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 101
5.3.1 Conceptually Defining the Construct 101
5.3.2 Deciding on an Operational Definition 102
5.3.2.1 Using an Existing Measure 102
5.3.2.2 Creating Your Own Measure 103
5.3.2.3 Implementing the Measure 104
5.3.2.4 Evaluating the Measure 105
KEY TAKEAWAYS 106
EXERCISES 106
Chapter 6 Experimental Research 107
The Parable of the 38 Witnesses 108
6.1 Experiment Basics 109
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 109
6.1.1 What Is an Experiment? 109
6.1.2 Internal and External Validity 110
6.1.2.1 Internal Validity 110
6.1.2.2 External Validity 110
6.1.3 Manipulation of the Independent Variable 112
6.1.4 Control of Extraneous Variables 113
6.1.4.1 Extraneous Variables as “Noise” 113
6.1.4.2 Extraneous Variables as Confounding Variables 115
KEY TAKEAWAYS 116
EXERCISES 116
6.2 Experimental Design 117
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 117
6.2.1 Between-Subjects Experiments 117
6.2.1.1 Random Assignment 118
6.2.1.2 Treatment and Control Conditions 120
The Powerful Placebo 122
6.2.2 Within-Subjects Experiments 122
6.2.2.1 Carryover Effects and Counterbalancing 123
When 9 Is “Larger” Than 221 124
6.2.2.2 Simultaneous Within-Subjects Designs 124
6.2.3 Between-Subjects or Within-Subjects? 125
KEY TAKEAWAYS 126
EXERCISES 126
6.3 Conducting Experiments 127
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 127
6.3.1 Recruiting Participants 127
The Volunteer Subject 128
6.3.2 Standardizing the Procedure 129
Experimenter’s Sex as an Extraneous Variable 129
6.3.3 Record Keeping 131
6.3.4 Pilot Testing 131
KEY TAKEAWAYS 132
EXERCISES 132
Chapter 7 Nonexperimental Research 133
7.1 Overview of Nonexperimental Research 133
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 133
7.1.1 What Is Nonexperimental Research? 134
7.1.2 When to Use Nonexperimental Research 134
7.1.3 Types of Nonexperimental Research 135
7.1.4 Internal Validity Revisited 136
KEY TAKEAWAYS 137
EXERCISE 138
7.2 Correlational Research 138
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 138
7.2.1 What Is Correlational Research? 138
7.2.2 Data Collection in Correlational Research 140
7.2.2.1 Naturalistic Observation 140
7.2.2.2 Archival Data 142
KEY TAKEAWAYS 143
EXERCISE 144
7.3 Quasi-Experimental Research 144
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 144
7.3.1 Nonequivalent Groups Design 145
7.3.2 Pretest-Posttest Design 146
Does Psychotherapy Work? 147
7.3.3 Interrupted Time Series Design 148
7.3.4 Combination Designs 149
KEY TAKEAWAYS 150
EXERCISES 151
7.4 Qualitative Research 151
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 151
7.4.1 What Is Qualitative Research? 151
7.4.2 The Purpose of Qualitative Research 152
7.4.3 Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research 153
7.4.3.1 Data Analysis in Quantitative Research 154
7.4.4 The Quantitative-Qualitative “Debate” 155
KEY TAKEAWAYS 156
EXERCISE 157
Chapter 8 Complex Research Designs 158
8.1 Multiple Dependent Variables 158
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 158
8.1.1 Measures of Different Constructs 159
8.1.2 Manipulation Checks 159
8.1.3 Measures of the Same Construct 160
KEY TAKEAWAYS 161
EXERCISES 161
8.2 Multiple Independent Variables 162
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 162
8.2.1 Factorial Designs 163
8.2.1.1 Overview 163
8.2.1.2 Assigning Participants to Conditions 165
8.2.2 Nonmanipulated Independent Variables 166
8.2.3 Graphing the Results of Factorial Experiments 167
8.2.4 Main Effects and Interactions 168
KEY TAKEAWAYS 172
EXERCISES 172
8.3 Complex Correlational Designs 172
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 172
8.3.1 Correlational Studies With Factorial Designs 173
8.3.2 Assessing Relationships Among Multiple Variables 173
8.3.3 Exploring Causal Relationships 175
KEY TAKEAWAYS 177
EXERCISES 177
Chapter 9 Survey Research 178
9.1 Overview of Survey Research 178
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 178
9.1.1 What Is Survey Research? 179
9.1.2 History and Uses of Survey Research 179
KEY TAKEAWAYS 182
EXERCISE 182
9.2 Constructing Survey Questionnaires 182
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 182
9.2.1 Survey Responding as a Psychological Process 183
9.2.1.1 A Cognitive Model 183
9.2.1.2 Context Effects on Questionnaire Responses 184
9.2.2 Writing Survey Questionnaire Items 185
9.2.2.1 Types of Items 185
What Is a Likert Scale? 187
9.2.2.2 Writing Effective Items 187
9.2.3 Formatting the Questionnaire 189
KEY TAKEAWAYS 190
EXERCISES 191
9.3 Conducting Surveys 191
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 191
9.3.1 Sampling 191
Sample Size and Population Size 194
9.3.2 Sampling Bias 194
9.3.3 Conducting the Survey 195
Online Survey Creation 196
KEY TAKEAWAYS 197
EXERCISES 197
Chapter 10 Single-Subject Research 198
10.1 Overview of Single-Subject Research 199
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 199
10.1.1 What Is Single-Subject Research? 199
The Case of “Anna O.” 201
10.1.2 Assumptions of Single-Subject Research 202
10.1.3 Who Uses Single-Subject Research? 204
KEY TAKEAWAYS 205
EXERCISES 205
10.2 Single-Subject Research Designs 206
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 206
10.2.1 General Features of Single-Subject Designs 206
10.2.2 Reversal Designs 207
10.2.3 Multiple-Baseline Designs 209
10.2.4 Data Analysis in Single-Subject Research 211
KEY TAKEAWAYS 214
EXERCISES 215
10.3 The Single-Subject Versus Group “Debate” 215
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 215
10.3.1 Data Analysis 216
10.3.2 External Validity 217
10.3.3 Single-Subject and Group Research as Complementary Methods 218
KEY TAKEAWAYS 219
EXERCISES 219
Chapter 11 Presenting Your Research 220
11.1 American Psychological Association (APA) Style 220
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 220
11.1.1 What Is APA Style? 220
11.1.2 The Levels of APA Style 221
APA Style and the Values of Psychology 222
Online APA Style Resources 226
11.1.3 APA-Style References and Citations 226
11.1.3.1 References 226
11.1.3.2 Journal Articles 227
11.1.3.3 Books 227
11.1.3.4 Book Chapters 227
11.1.3.5 Reference Citations 228
KEY TAKEAWAYS 230
EXERCISES 230
11.2 Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style 231
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 231
11.2.1 Sections of a Research Report 231
11.2.1.1 Title Page and Abstract 231
It’s Soooo Cute! 232
11.2.1.2 Introduction 232
11.2.1.3 The Opening 233
Breaking the Rules 234
11.2.1.4 The Literature Review 234
11.2.1.5 The Closing 235
11.2.1.6 Method 236
11.2.1.7 Results 238
11.2.1.8 Discussion 239
11.2.1.9 References 240
11.2.1.10 Appendixes, Tables, and Figures 240
11.2.1.11 Sample APA-Style Research Report 241
KEY TAKEAWAYS 246
EXERCISES 246
11.3 Other Presentation Formats 247
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 247
11.3.1 Other Types of Manuscripts 247
11.3.1.1 Review and Theoretical Articles 247
11.3.1.2 Final Manuscripts 248
11.3.2 Conference Presentations 248
Professional Conferences 249
11.3.3 Oral Presentations 250
11.3.4 Posters 250
KEY TAKEAWAYS 252
EXERCISE 252
Chapter 12 Descriptive Statistics 253
12.1 Describing Single Variables 253
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 253
12.1.1 The Distribution of a Variable 254
12.1.1.1 Frequency Tables 254
12.1.1.2 Histograms 256
12.1.1.3 Distribution Shapes 257
12.1.2 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability 258
12.1.2.1 Central Tendency 259
12.1.2.2 Measures of Variability 260
N or N− 1 263
12.1.2.3 Percentile Ranks and Scores 263
Online Descriptive Statistics 264
KEY TAKEAWAYS 265
EXERCISES 265
12.2 Describing Statistical Relationships 266
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 266
12.2.1 Differences Between Groups or Conditions 266
Sex Differences Expressed as Cohen’s d 269
12.2.1.1 Correlations Between Quantitative Variables 269
KEY TAKEAWAYS 274
EXERCISES 275
12.3 Expressing Your Results 276
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 276
12.3.1 Presenting Descriptive Statistics in Writing 277
12.3.2 Presenting Descriptive Statistics in Graphs 277
12.3.2.1 Bar Graphs 278
12.3.2.2 Line Graphs 279
12.3.2.3 Scatterplots 280
12.3.3 Expressing Descriptive Statistics in Tables 281
KEY TAKEAWAYS 283
EXERCISE 283
12.4 Conducting Your Analyses 284
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 284
12.4.1 Prepare Your Data for Analysis 284
12.4.2 Preliminary Analyses 285
12.4.3 Answer Your Research Questions 287
12.4.4 Understand Your Descriptive Statistics 287
KEY TAKEAWAYS 288
EXERCISE 288
Chapter 13 Inferential Statistics 289
13.1 Understanding Null Hypothesis Testing 289
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 289
13.1.1 The Purpose of Null Hypothesis Testing 290
13.1.2 The Logic of Null Hypothesis Testing 291
The Misunderstood p Value 292
13.1.3 Role of Sample Size and Relationship Strength 292
13.1.4 Statistical Significance Versus Practical Significance 294
KEY TAKEAWAYS 295
EXERCISES 296
13.2 Some Basic Null Hypothesis Tests 296
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 296
13.2.1 The t Test 297
13.2.1.1 One-Sample Test 297
13.2.1.2 Example One-Sample Test 301
13.2.1.3 The Dependent-Samples Test 302
13.2.1.4 Example Dependent-Samples t Test 302
13.2.1.5 The Independent-Samples Test 303
13.2.1.6 Example Independent-Samples t Test 304
13.2.2 The Analysis of Variance 304
13.2.2.1 One-Way ANOVA 305
13.2.2.2 Example One-Way ANOVA 308
13.2.2.3 ANOVA Elaborations 309
13.2.2.3.1 Post Hoc Comparisons 309
13.2.2.3.2 Repeated-Measures ANOVA 310
13.2.2.3.3 Factorial ANOVA 310
13.2.3 Testing Pearson’s r 311
13.2.3.1 Example Test of Pearson’s 312
KEY TAKEAWAYS 313
EXERCISES 313
13.3 Additional Considerations 314
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 314
13.3.1 Errors in Null Hypothesis Testing 314
13.3.2 Statistical Power 316
Computing Power Online 318
13.3.3 Problems With Null Hypothesis Testing, and Some Solutions 318
13.3.3.1 Criticisms of Null Hypothesis Testing 318
13.3.3.2 What to Do? 319
KEY TAKEAWAYS 320
EXERCISES 321 [Show Less]