CS->UCS-> UCR (Pairing of NS with UCS to become CS)
*Introduced terms in video (Generalization and Discrimination)
o Acquisition: repeated pairing of
... [Show More] the NS (neutral stimulus) and the UCS (US); the organism is in the process of acquiring learning-first few conditioning trials
▪ Although classical conditioning happens quite easily, there are a few basic principles that researchers have discovered:
• CS must(?) come before UCS
• CS and UCS must (?) come very close together in time- ideally, only several seconds apart
• Neutral stimulus must(?) be paired with the USC several times,
often many times, before conditioning can take place
o One trial learning
o Stimulus generalization: tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response
▪ The more similar the stimulus to the original CS used during conditioning the MORE likely you are to get a CR?
o Stimulus discrimination: tendency to not make a conditioned response (CR) to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus, but NOT similar enough to get CR
▪ The farther you get from the original CS used during conditioning the LESS likely you are to get a CR?
o Extinction: disappearance or weakening of a learned (conditioned) response (CR) following the removal or absence of the conditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning)
▪ US (food)- CS (light)
▪ Conditioning trials of the above stimuli
▪ Strong CR (salivation)
• To extinguish, present CS ALONE, over and over again (WITHOUT UCS) -> leads to extinction
*ended with the idea that extinction is not permanent-> leads up to spontaneous recovery
1/25/19
First Chapter-> Learning (CHAPTER 5) Lecture Notes
➢ Acquisition: pairing the US and CS together through multiple learning trials
➢ Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred
o Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior b/c extinction does not mean forgetting
➢ High-order conditioning->
o Strong, established conditioned stimulus (CS1) is paired with a neutral stimulus
o Now previously neutral stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus (CS2)
➢ Conditioned emotional response (CER): emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli (CS): occurs naturally or experimentally -> snake- shock (vs. string-shock)
o Example 1- conditioned fear of dogs
o Example 2- the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person
o CERs may lead to phobias- irrational fear responses.
➢ Conditioned taste aversion: development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by nausea reaction/vomiting
o Occurs after only one association (CS-US)
o Often, hours between CS and US
➢ Biological preparedness: the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of learning
o Fear of spiders and snakes vs Fear of chairs
Operant Conditioning
➢ Operant Conditioning: the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses
o R-> S
➢ Thorndike’s law of effect
o If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated
o If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence it will tend to not be repeated
1/28/19
First Chapter-> Learning (CHAPTER 5) Lecture Notes
➢ Skinner’s contribution (“father of operant conditioning”)
o Skinner was a behaviorist; he wanted to study only observable, measurable behavior
o Gave “operant conditioning” its name
▪ Operant: any behavior that is voluntary
o Learning depends on what happens after the response: the consequence
➢ Reinforcement: any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again
o Primary reinforcer: any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch
o Secondary reinforcer: any reinforcer that becomes reinforced after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
▪ Learned or conditioned
➢ Positive and Negative reinforcement
o Positive reinforcement/reward: the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable stimulus
o Negative reinforcement: the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus
o Negative reinforcement punishment
▪ Example: taking aspirin for a headache is negatively reinforced by the removal of a headache
➢ Coming two kinds of Conditioning (too wordy!)
➢ Schedules of Reinforcement
o Partial or intermittent reinforcement: a response that is reinforced after some- but not all- correct responses tends to be very resistant to extinction
o Continuous reinforcement: reinforcement of each and every correct response
▪ These are FRI schedules
o Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement: number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same
▪ FR10
o Variable ration schedule of reinforcement: schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event
▪ VR10
▪ # varies around some average
o Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement: interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same
▪ FI20
▪ Paycheck every 2 weeks
o Variable interval schedule of reinforcement: the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event
▪ Time interval varies around some average
▪ VI10
▪ Pop quizzes-> Getting “A” (+reinforcer)
o
➢ Punishment: any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again
o 1. Punishment by application: the punishment of response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus
▪ Positive stimulus
o 2. Punishment by removal: the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus
▪ Negative punishment
*Reiterate the difference between Reinforcement and Punishment both + and – Ended with the Problems with Punishment
1/30/19
First Chapter-> Learning (CHAPTER 5) Lecture Notes
➢ Severe Punishment
o May cause avoidance of the punisher instead of the behavior being punished
o May encourage lying to avoid punishment
o Creates fear and anxiety
o Increased aggression
o Increased apathy
➢ How to make Punishment More effective
o Punishment should immediately follow the behavior (R) it is meant to punish.
o Punishment should be consistent
o Punishment should be explained to children
o Punishment of undesirable behavior should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the desirable behavior
➢ Operant stimuli and stimulus control
o Discriminative stimulus: any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement
▪ Stimulus that signals the likelihood of reinforcement following a
behavioral response (R)
• Traffic light, vending machine light...
• Rat-> different lights
• Stimulus generalization and discrimination to lights
• Discriminative stimulus stimulus discrimination
o Shaping: positive reinforcement of simple steps, leading to a desired complex behavior (“target behavior”)
▪ Successive approximation: small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular behavior
• Baby steps
o Extinction: occurs if the behavior (R) is not reinforced
▪ One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it; lack of reinforcement for the tantrum behavior will eventually result in extinction
• Spontaneous recovery days after extinction
• Extinction burst at the start of extinction
o Spontaneous recovery (reoccurrence of a once-extinguished response) also happens in operant conditioning (and classical)
➢ Behavior Resistant to operant conditioning
o Instinctive drift: tendency for an animal’s behavior to revert to genetically controlled behavior patterns
▪ Instinctive patterns of behavior
▪ there are some responses that simply cannot be trained into an animal regardless of conditioning
2/1/19
o Behavior modification: use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in human behavior
o Token economy: type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens
First Chapter-> Learning (CHAPTER 5) Lecture Notes
➢ Time- out: form of mild “negative punishment” in which a misbehaving animal, child, or adult is placed in a special area away from the attention of others
o Essentially, the organisms are being “removed” from any possibility of positive reinforcement in the form of attention
➢ Applied Behavior analysis (ABA): modern term for a form of behavior modification that
uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response in humans
➢ Biofeedback: use of feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses such as blood pressure and relaxation under voluntary control
o People learn to control autonomic processes vial feedback (usually auditory)
*Teaching people to understand how their body responds and identify cues
➢ Neurofeedback: form of feedback using devices (EEG, fMRI) to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior
➢ Latent learning:
o Learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful
o Learning happening w/o consistent reinforcement
➢ Edward Tolman: early cognitive scientist -> Maze
o Best-known experiments in learning involved teaching three groups of rats in the same maze, one at a time
▪ Reward/reinforcer on last day resulted in rats learning the maze almost
immediately
➢ (Insight learning- Kohler) Insight: the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly
o Cannot be gained through trial and error learning alone
o “aha” moment (r/shower thoughts)
➢ Learned helplessness: tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past
o Dogs-> apparatus slide
o Model of Depression
▪ People try to help themselves by engaging in various behaviors (R)-> no help (S)
▪ Some people may learn to be apathetic/helpless and stop persevering ->
depression
2/4/19
First Chapter-> Learning (CHAPTER 5) Lecture Notes
➢ Observational learning (Bandura): learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior
o Also called vicarious learning
o Observer vs. model
o Observe RS
➢ Four Important Elements of Observational Learning
o Attention
▪ To learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay attention to the model.
o Memory
▪ The learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the steps in preparing a dish that were first seen on a cooking show.
o Imitation
▪ The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model.
o Motivation/Desire
▪ The learner must have the desire to perform the action.
Finished notes for remaining 4 slides, Corodimas slipped right into the next Chapter
2/6/19
Second Chapter-> Cognition (CHAPTER 7) Lecture Notes
➢ Thinking and Mental Images
o Thinking(cognition): mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information
▪ Processing includes organizing, understanding and communicating
information to others
▪ Making decisions, comparing info...to solve problems
▪ Not just words in our minds, but also use:
o Mental images: mental representations that stand for objects or events that have a picture like quality
▪ Does a frog have lips and a stubby tail?
▪ Mentally rotate images in our mind like physical objects
▪ The greater the amount of rotation= takes greater amount of time
• Visual cortex activated by mental images (MRI)
➢ Another Aspect of Thought: Concepts
o Concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects (fruit), events (e.g., war), or activities (dancing)
▪ We can think about and understand the concept of “fruit” without having to think about very single type of fruit
▪ Help us to identify EXISTING objects/events and NEW ones
o Used to organize all the sensory info. we are receiving to understand world & communicate with each other
▪ Concepts may have very strict definitions (formal concepts)
• square
▪ Allow us to identify new objects or events that may fit the concept
• Cat concept-- new cat-like animal
o Concepts: 2 Types
▪ 1. Formal- have very specific, strict rules
• Many math concepts: square, triangle…
• Psychology concepts: conditioned stimulus vs. unconditioned stimulus
▪ 2. Natural- no strict, specific rules—these concepts are formed by our
experience with them in the real world; “fuzzy” or vague
• “Vehicle” for people in VA vs. people in Antarctica
• Car, truck, raft, bobsled, snowmobile
o Prototype: a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept
▪ prototypes develop according to the cultural exposure a person has to
objects in that category
▪ People often compare potential examples of a concept with their prototype and look for a match
EX: “Prototypic Fruit” concept mango (India) vs. apple (USA)
➢ Problem Solving
o Problem solving: occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways
▪ Math problem
▪ Deciding on a college major
▪ Deciding what to do his Friday night
Problem-solving is one aspect of:
o Decision making: identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives
o 1. Trial and error: problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found
▪ Trial and error – problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.
▪ Rat in a maze
*Most basic
o 2. Algorithms: very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems
▪ Will always result in a correct solution if one exists, but not always practical
• mathematical formulas use algorithms
• Forgot 4-digit PIN # take a long time to try every combination of numbers (not always practical)
o 10,000 possibilities, so Heuristics might be better
o 3. Heuristics: educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem; also known as a “rule of thumb;”
• faster than algorithm, not as accurate
▪ A. Representative(ness) heuristic: assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category
• Used to categorize objects/people
• Apply to plants (green leaves, white flowers…)-works well
• Apply to people (blonde & blue eyes…Swedish)-may work poorly
▪ B. Availability heuristic: estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall or remember relevant information from memory or how easy it is to think of related examples (Strongly influenced by the MEDIA…)
• More common: suicides? vs. homicides?
• More words begin with the letter “K” in the textbook or have this letter as the 3rd letter in a word?
▪ C. Working backward from the goal is a useful heuristic
• Goal getting to the River Ridge Mall (look up address) then work backward to U of L to determine best route
▪ Insight: sudden perception of a solution to a problem
• Getting a coin out of a bottle without removing the cork or breaking the bottle “aha!” moment
o Push cork into bottle, then shake out coin
• Problem may be recognized as similar to another previously solved, for example form of generalization
• Kohler’s apes
➢ Problem Solving Barriers
o 1. Functional fixedness: a block to problem-solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions/uses string problem “Fixed on the function”
▪ Looking for screwdriver for simple kitchen task (tightening) when a butter
knife or dime would work
▪ Typical function of screwdriver vs. butter knife vs. dime
o 2. Mental set: the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past (EX: functional fixedness)
Dot problem (p. 270) We are taught to “stay within the lines” when writing, driving etc.……
o 3. Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. Barrier to logical thinking [Show Less]