CSET STUDY GUIDE- GENERAL SCIENCE
EXAM 2023-2024
SMR 1.1.a: Demonstrate knowledge of how to ask questions that can be addressed by
scientific
... [Show More] investigation, help further understanding of observed phenomena, and help
clarify scientific explanations and relationships. - ANS-From NGSS:
A practice of science is to ask and refine questions that lead to descriptions and
explanations of how the natural and designed world works and which can be empirically
tested.
- Ask questions that require sufficient and appropriate empirical evidence to answer.
- Ask questions that arise from careful observation of phenomena, models, or
unexpected results, to clarify and/or seek additional information.
- Ask questions to identify and/or clarify evidence and/or the premise(s) of an argument.
- Ask questions to determine relationships between independent and dependent
variables and relationships in models.
- Ask questions to clarify and/or refine a model, an explanation, or an engineering
problem.
- Ask questions that can be investigated within the scope of the classroom, outdoor
environment, and museums and other public facilities with available resources and,
when appropriate, frame a hypothesis based on observations and scientific principles.
- Define a design problem that can be solved through the development of an object,
tool, process or system and include multiple criteria and constraints, including scientific
knowledge that may limit possible solutions.
- Ask questions that challenge the premise(s) of an argument or the interpretation of a
data set.
Students at any grade level should be able to ask questions of each other about the
texts they read, the features of the phenomena they observe, and the conclusions they
draw from their models or scientific investigations.
Scientific questions arise in a variety of ways. They can be driven by curiosity about the
world, inspired by the predictions of a model, theory, or findings from previous
investigations, or they can be stimulated by the need to solve a problem. Scientific
questions are distinguished from other types of questions in that the answers lie in
explanations supported by empirical evidence, including evidence gathered by others or
through investigation.
A student can ask a question about data that will lead to further analysis and
interpretation. Or a student might ask a question that leads to planning and design, an
investigation, or the refinement of a design.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=1
SMR 1.1.b: Apply knowledge of the development of important scientific ideas and
models over time and of how history shows that evaluating a model's merits and
limitations leads to its improvement. - ANS-From NGSS:
A practice of both science and engineering is to use and construct models as helpful
tools for representing ideas and explanations. These tools include diagrams, drawings,
physical replicas, mathematical representations, analogies, and computer simulations.
- Evaluate limitations of a model for a proposed object or tool.
- Develop or modify a model--based on evidence--to match what happens if a variable
or component of a system is changed.
- Use and/or develop a model of simple systems with uncertain and less predictable
factors.
- Develop and/or revise a model to show the relationships among variables, including
those that are not observable but predict observable phenomena.
- Develop and/or use a model to predict and/or describe phenomena.
- Develop a model to describe unobservable mechanisms.
- Develop and/or use a model to generate data to test ideas about phenomena in
natural or designed systems, including those representing inputs and outputs, and those
at unobservable scales.
Modeling can begin in the earliest grades, with students' models progressing from
concrete "pictures" and/or physical models (e.g., a toy car) to more abstract
representations of relevant relationships in later grades, such as a diagram representing
forces on a particular object in a system.
Models include diagrams, physical replicas, mathematical representations, analogies,
and computer simulations. Although models do not correspond exactly to the real world,
they bring certain features into focus while obscuring others. All models contain
approximations and assumptions that limit the range of validity and predictive power, so
it is important for students to recognize their limitations.
In science, models are used to represent a system (or parts of a system) under study, to
aid in the development of questions and explanations, to generate data that can be
used to make predictions, and to communicate ideas to others.
Students can be expected to evaluate and refine models through an iterative cycle of
comparing their predictions with the real world and then adjusting them to gain insights
into the phenomenon being modeled. As such, models are based upon evidence. When
new evidence is uncovered that the models can't explain, models are modified.
In engineering, models may be used to analyze a system to see where or under what
conditions flaws might develop, or to test possible solutions to a problem. Models can
also be used to visualize and refine a design, to communicate a design's features to
others, and as prototypes for testing design performance.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=2
SMR 1.1.c: Apply knowledge of planning and conducting scientific investigations,
including safety considerations and the use of appropriate tools and technology. - ANSTo conduct a scientific investigation:
1. Make an observation.
2. Ask a question.
3. Do background research to search for existing answers or solutions.
4. Construct a hypothesis to answer your question.
5. Design and perform an experiment.
6. Analyze data to accept or reject the hypothesis.
7. Draw conclusions based on your hypothesis.
8. If results align with the hypothesis, communicate results. If they do not, ask a new
question and repeat the process.
Safety considerations:
- Follow instructions and be attentive.
- Have proper supervision.
- Know the location of safety equipment.
- Know what hazard symbols mean.
- Know what to do in case of an accident.
- Dress appropriately (close-toed shoes and goggles are a must!)
- Keep a clean workspace.
- Handle glassware carefully.
- Do not taste or sniff chemicals.
- Do not eat or drink in a lab.
- Dispose of waste properly.
From NGSS:
Scientists and engineers plan and carry out investigations in the field or laboratory,
working collaboratively as well as individually. Their investigations are systematic and
require clarifying what counts as data and identifying variables or parameters.
- Plan an investigation individually or collaboratively, and in the design: identify
independent and dependent variables and controls, what tools are needed to do the
gathering, how measurements will be recorded, and how many data are needed to
support a claim.
- Conduct an investigation and/or evaluate and/or revise the experimental design to
produce data to serve as the basis for evidence that meets the goals of the
investigation.
- Evaluate the accuracy of various methods for collecting data.
- Collect data to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence to answer scientific
questions or test design solutions under a range of conditions.
- Collect data about the performance of a proposed object, tool, process, or system
under a range of conditions.
Students should have opportunities to plan and carry out several different kinds of
investigations during their K-12 years. At all levels, they should engage in investigations
that range from those structured by the teacher--in order to expose an issue or question
that they would be unlikely to explore on their own (e.g., measuring specific properties
of materials)--to those that emerge from students' own questions.
Scientific investigations may be undertaken to describe a phenomenon, or to test a
theory or model of how the world works. The purpose of engineering investigations
might be to find out how to fix or improve the functioning of a technological system or to
compare different solutions to see which best solves a problem. Students should design
investigations that generate data to provide evidence to support claims they make about
phenomena.
Planning and carrying out investigations may include elements of all the other practices.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=3
SMR 1.1.d: Apply modeling and mathematical concepts of statistics and probability to
the analysis and interpretation of data, including analysis of errors and their origins. -
ANS-From NGSS:
Because data patterns and trends are not always obvious, scientists use a range of
tools--including tabulation, graphical interpretation, visualization, and statistic analysis--
to identify the significant features and patterns in the data. Modern technology makes
the collection of large data sets much easier, providing secondary sources for analysis.
- Consider limitations of data analysis (e.g., measurement error), and/or seek to improve
precision and accuracy of data with better technological tools and methods (e.g.,
multiple trials).
Because raw data as such have little meaning, a major practice of scientists is to
organize and interpret data through tabulating, graphing, or statistical analysis. Such
analysis can bring out the meaning of data--and their relevance--so that they may be
used as evidence.
Analysis of this kind of data not only informs design decisions and enables the
prediction or assessment of performance but also helps define or clarify problems,
determine economic feasibility, evaluate alternatives, and investigate failures.
As students mature, they are expected to expand their capabilities to use a range of
tools for tabulation, graphical representation, visualization, and statistical analysis.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=4
SMR 1.1.e: Demonstrate ability to analyze scientific data and information and draw
appropriate and logical conclusions. - ANS-From NGSS:
Scientific investigations produce data that must be analyzed in order to derive meaning.
Because data patterns and trends are not always obvious, scientists use a range of
tools--including tabulation, graphical interpretation, visualization, and statistical analysis-
-to identify the significant features and patterns in the data. Scientists identify sources of
error in their investigations and calculate the degree of certainty in the results. Modern
technology makes the collection of large data sets much easier, providing secondary
sources for analysis.
- Construct, analyze, and/or interpret graphical displays of data and/or large data sets to
identify linear and nonlinear relationships.
- Use graphical displays (e.g., maps, charts, graphs, and/or tables) of large data sets to
identify temporal and spatial relationships.
- Distinguish between causal and correlational relationships in data.
- Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence for phenomena.
- Apply concepts of statistics and probability (including mean, median, mode, and
variability) to analyze and characterize data, using digital tools when feasible.
- Consider limitations of data analysis (e.g., measurement error), and/or seek to improve
precision and accuracy of data with better technological tools and methods (e.g.,
multiple trials).
- Analyze and interpret data to determine similarities and differences in findings.
- Analyze data to define an optimal operational range for a proposed object, tool,
process or system that best meets criteria for success.
Once collected, data must be presented in a form that can reveal any patterns and
relationships and allows results to be communicated to others. Because raw data as
such have little meaning, a major practice of scientists is to organize and interpret data
through tabulating, graphing, or statistical analysis. Such analysis can bring out the
meaning of data--and their relevance--so that they may be used as evidence.
Engineers often analyze a design by creating a model or prototype and collecting
extensive data on how it performs, including under extreme conditions. Analysis of this
kind of data not only informs design decisions and enables the prediction or assessment
of performance but also helps define or clarify problems, determine economic feasibility,
evaluate alternatives, and investigate failures.
Students are also expected to improve their abilities to interpret data by identifying
significant features and patterns, use mathematics to present relationships between
variables, and take into account sources of error. When possible and feasible, students
should use digital tools to analyze and interpret data. Whether analyzing data for the
purpose of science or engineering, it is important students present data as evidence to
support their conclusions.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=4
SMR 1.1.f: Use mathematics (e.g., dimensional analysis, statistics, proportional
thinking) and computational thinking to represent and solve scientific problems and to
assess scientific simulations. - ANS-From NGSS:
In both science and engineering, mathematics and computation are fundamental tools
for representing physical variables and their relationships. They are used for a range of
tasks such as constructing simulations; statistically analyzing data; and recognizing,
expressing, and applying quantitative relationships.
- Use digital tools (e.g., computers) to analyze very large data sets for patterns and
trends.
- Use mathematical representations to describe and/or support scientific conclusions
and design solutions.
- Create algorithms (a series of ordered steps) to solve a problem).
- Apply mathematical concepts and/or processes (such as ratio, rate, percent, basic
operations, and simple algebra) to scientific and engineering questions and problems.
- Use digital tools and/or mathematical concepts and arguments to test and compare
proposed solutions to an engineering design problem.
Although there are differences in how mathematics and computational thinking are
applied in science and engineering, mathematics often brings these two fields together
by enabling engineers to apply the mathematical form of scientific theories and by
enabling scientists to use powerful information technologies designed by engineers.
Students are expected to use mathematics to represent physical variables and their
relationships, and to make quantitative predictions. Other applications of mathematics in
science and engineering include logic, geometry, and at the highest levels, calculus.
Computers and digital tools can enhance the power of mathematics by automating
calculations, approximating solutions to problems that cannot be calculated precisely,
and analyzing large data sets available to identify meaningful patterns. Students are
also expected to engage in computational thinking, which involves strategies for
organizing and searching data, creating sequences of steps called algorithms, and
using and developing new simulations of natural and designed systems. Mathematics is
a tool that is key to understanding science. As such, classroom instruction must include
critical skills of mathematics.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=5
SMR 1.1.g: Demonstrate the ability to construct and analyze scientific explanations. -
ANS-From NGSS:
The products of science are explanations and the products of engineering are solutions.
- Construct an explanation that includes qualitative or quantitative relationships between
variables that predict(s) and/or describe(s) phenomena.
- Construct an explanation using models or representations.
- Construct a scientific explanation based on valid and reliable evidence obtained from
sources (including the students' own experiences) and the assumption that theories and
laws that describe the natural world operate today as they did in the past and will
continue to do so in the future.
- Apply scientific ideas, principles, and/or evidence to construct, revise and/or use an
explanation for real-world phenomena, examples, or events.
- Apply scientific reasoning to show why the data or evidence is adequate for the
explanation or conclusion.
- Apply scientific ideas or principles to design, construct, and/or test a design of an
object, tool, process, or system.
- Undertake a design project, engaging in the design cycle, to construct and/or
implement a solution that meets specific design criteria and constraints.
- Optimize performance of a design by prioritizing criteria, making tradeoffs, testing,
revising, and re-testing.
The goal of science is to construct explanations for the causes of phenomena. Students
are expected to construct their own explanations, as well as apply standard
explanations they learn about from their teachers or readings.
The goal of science is the construction of theories that provide explanatory accounts of
the world.
An explanation includes a claim that relates how a variable or variables relate to another
variable or a set of variables.
Asking students to demonstrate their understanding of the implications of a scientific
idea by developing their own explanations of phenomena, whether based on
observations they have made or models they have developed, engages them in an
essential part of the process by which conceptual change can occur.
In engineering, the goal is a design rather than an explanation. The process of
developing a design is iterative and systematic, as is the process of developing an
explanation or theory in science.
https://ngss.nsta.org/practices.aspx?id=6
SMR 1.1.h: Demonstrate the ability to evaluate scientific arguments in terms of their
supporting evidence and reasoning. - ANS-From NGSS:
Argumentation is the process by which explanations and solutions are reached.
- Compare and critique two arguments on the same topic and analyze whether they
emphasize similar or different evidence and/or interpretations of facts.
- Respectfully provide and receive critiques about one's explanations, procedures,
models and questions by citing relevant evidence and posing and responding to
questions that elicit pertinent elaboration and detail.
- Construct, use, and/or present the oral and written argument supported by empirical
evidence and scientific reasoning to support or refute an explanation or a model for a
phenomenon or a solution to a problem.
- Make an oral or written argument that supports or refutes the advertised performance
of a device, process, or system, based on empirical evidence concerning whether or not
the technology meets relevant criteria and constraints.
- Evaluate competing design solutions based on jointly developed and agreed-upon
design criteria.
The study of science and engineering should produce a sense of the process of
argument necessary for advancing and defending a new idea or an explanation of a
phenomenon and the norms for conducting such arguments.
In science, reasoning and argument based on evidence are essential in identifying the
best explanation for a natural phenomenon. In engineering, reasoning and argument
are needed to identify the best solution to a design problem. As such, argument is a
process based on evidence and reasoning that leads to explanations acceptable by the
scientific community and design solutions acceptable for the engineering community.
Scientists and engineers engage in argumentation when investigating a phenomenon,
testing a design solution, resolving questions about measurements, building data
models, and using evidence to evaluate claims.
https://ngss.nsta.org/practices.aspx?id=7
SMR 1.1.i: Demonstrate knowledge of the ability to obtain, evaluate, interpret, and
communicate scientific information (e.g., determining central ideas, integrating
information from multiple sources, evaluating the validity of claims, using multiple
formats to communicate scientific results). - ANS-From NGSS:
Scientists and engineers must be able to communicate clearly and persuasively the
ideas and methods they generate. Critiquing and communicating ideas individually and
in groups is a critical professional activity.
- Critically read scientific texts adapted for classroom use to determine the central ideas
and/or obtain scientific and/or technical information to describe patterns in and/or
evidence about the natural and design world(s).
- Integrate qualitative and/or quantitative scientific and/or technical information in written
text with that contained in media and visual displays to clarify claims and findings.
- Gather, read, synthesize information from multiple appropriate sources and assess the
credibility, accuracy, and possible bias of each publication and methods used, and
describe how they are supported or not supported by evidence.
- Evaluate data, hypotheses, and/or conclusions in scientific and technical texts in light
of competing information or accounts.
- Communicate scientific and/or technical information (e.g., about a proposed object,
tool, process, system) in writing and/or through oral presentations.
Being a critical consumer of information about science and engineering requires the
ability to read or view reports of scientific or technological advances or applications
(whether found in the press, or the Internet, or in a town meeting) and to recognize the
salient ideas, identify sources of error and methodological flaws, distinguish
observations from inferences, arguments from explanations, and claims from evidence.
Scientists and engineers employ multiple sources to obtain information used to evaluate
the merit and validity of claims, methods, and designs. Communicating information,
evidence, and ideas can be done in multiple ways: using tables, diagrams, graphs,
models, interactive displays, and equations as well as orally, in writing, and through
extended discussions.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=8
SMR 1.2.a: Apply knowledge of engineering practices to define problems, determine
specifications of designed systems, and identify constraints. - ANS-From NGSS:
A practice of science is to ask and refine questions that lead to descriptions and
explanations of how the natural and designed world works and which can be empirically
tested.
- Ask questions to clarify and/or refine a model, an explanation, or an engineering
solution.
For engineering, they should ask questions to define the problem to be solved and to
elicit ideas that lead to the constraints and specifications for its solution.
While science begins with questions, engineering begins with defining a problem to
solve. However, engineering may also involve asking questions to define a problem,
such as: What is the need or desire that underlies the problem? What are the criteria for
a successful solution? Other questions arise when generating ideas, or testing possible
solutions, such as: What are the possible tradeoffs? What evidence is necessary to
determine which solution is best?
When engaged in science or engineering, the ability to ask good questions and clearly
define problems is essential for everyone.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=1
CONTINUES....
SMR 1.2.b: Evaluate design solutions in terms of their scientific and engineering
constraints and the environmental, social, and cultural impacts of these solutions. -
ANS-From NGSS SEPs:
- Analyze complex real-world problems by specifying criteria and constraints for
successful solutions.
- Design a solution to a complex real-world problem, based on scientific knowledge,
student-generated sources of evidence, prioritized criteria, and tradeoff considerations.
- Evaluate a solution to a complex real-world problem, based on scientific knowledge,
student-generated sources of evidence, prioritized criteria, and tradeoff considerations.
From NGSS DCIs:
- Criteria and constraints also include satisfying any requirements set by society, such
as taking issues of risk mitigation into account, and they should be quantified to the
extent possible and stated in such a way that one can tell if a given design meets them.
- Humanity faces major global challenges today, such as the need for supplies of clean
water and food or for energy sources that minimize pollution, which can be addressed
through engineering. These global challenges also may have manifestations in local
communities.
- When evaluating solutions, it is important to take into account a range of constraints,
including cost, safety, reliability, and aesthetics, and to consider social, cultural, and
environmental impacts.
- Criteria may need to be broken down into simpler ones that can be approached
systematically, and decisions about the priority of certain criteria over others (trade-offs)
may be needed.
From NGSS CCs:
- New technologies can have deep impacts on society and the environment, including
some that were not anticipated. Analysis of costs and benefits is a critical aspect of
decisions about technology.
https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=1
SMR 1.2.c: Apply knowledge of the roles of models (e.g., mathematical, physical,
computer simulations) in the engineering design process. - ANS-Mathematical models
and/or computer simulations are used to predict the effects of a design solution on
systems and/or the interactions between systems.
Physical, mathematical, and computer models can be used to simulate systems and
interactions.
From NGSS SEPs:
- Use mathematical models and/or computer simulations to predict the effects of a
design solution on systems and/or the interactions between systems.
From NGSS DCIs:
- Both physical models and computers can be used in various ways to aid in the
engineering design process. Computers are useful for a variety of purposes, such as
running simulations to test different ways of solving a problem or to see which one is
most efficient or economical; and in making a persuasive presentation to a client about
how a given design will meet his or her needs.
From NGSS CCs:
- Models (e.g., physical, mathematical, computer models) can be used to simulate
systems and interactions--including energy, matter, and information flows--within and
between systems at different scales.
https://www.nextgenscience.org/pe/hs-ets1-4-engineering-design
SMR 1.2.d: Demonstrate knowledge of the process used to optimize a design solution
(e.g., prioritizing criteria, refining a design due to test results). - ANS-From NGSS:
The core idea of engineering design includes three component ideas:
A. Defining and delimiting engineering problems involves stating the problem to be
solved as clearly as possible in terms of criteria for success, and constraints or limits.
B. Designing solutions to engineering problems begins with generating a number of
different possible solutions, then evaluating potential solutions to see which ones best
meet the criteria and constraints of the problem.
C. Optimizing the design solution involves a process in which solutions are systemically
tested and refined and the final design is improved by trading off less important features
for those that are more important.
At the middle school level, students learn to sharpen the focus of problems by precisely
specifying criteria and constraints of successful solutions, taking into account not only
what needs the problem is intended to meet, but also the larger context within which the
problem is defined, including limits to possible solutions. Students can identify elements
of different solutions and combine them to create new solutions. Students at this level
are expected to use systematic methods to compare different solutions to see which
best meet criteria and constraints, and to test and revise solutions a number of times in
order to arrive at an optimal design.
https://www.nextgenscience.org/sites/default/files/Appendix%20I%20-
%20Engineering%20Design%20in%20NGSS%20-%20FINAL_V2.pdf
SMR 1.2.e: Apply knowledge of the interdependence of science, engineering, and
technology (e.g., in agriculture, health care, and communications). - ANS-From NGSS:
The fields of science and engineering are mutually supportive, and scientists and
engineers often work together in teams, especially in fields at the borders of science
and engineering. Advances in science offer new capabilities, new materials, or new
understandings of processes that can be applied through engineering to produce
advances in technology. Advances in technology, in turn, provide scientists with new
capabilities to probe the natural world at larger or smaller scales; to record, manage,
and analyze data; and to model ever more complex systems with greater precision. In
addition, engineers' efforts to develop or improve technologies often raise new
questions for scientists' investigations.
The interdependence of science--with its resulting discoveries and principles--and
engineering--with its resulting technologies--includes a number of ideas of how the
fields of science and engineering interrelate. One is the idea that scientific discoveries
enable engineers to do their work. For example, the discoveries of grand explorers of
electricity have enabled engineers to create a world linked by vast power grids that
illuminate cities, enable communications, and accomplish thousands of other tasks.
Engineering accomplishments also enable the work of scientists.
New insights from science often catalyze the emergence of new technologies and their
applications, which are developed using engineering design. In turn, new technologies
open opportunities for new scientific investigations.
https://www.nextgenscience.org/sites/default/files/APPENDIX%20J%204.15.13%20for
%20Final%20Release.pdf
SMR 1.2.f: Demonstrate knowledge of the influence of engineering, technology, and
science on society and the natural world (e.g., in land use, transportation, and energy
production). - ANS-From NGSS:
Together, advances in science, engineering, and technology can have--and indeed
have had--profound effects on human society, in such areas as agriculture,
transportation, health care, and communication, and on the natural environment. Each
system can change significantly when new technologies are introduced, with both
desired effects and unexpected outcomes.
From the earliest forms of agriculture to the latest technologies, all human activity has
drawn on natural resources and has had both short- and long-term consequences,
positive as well as negative, for the health of both people and the natural environment.
These consequences have grown stronger in recent human history. Society has
changed dramatically, and human populations and longevity have increased, as
advances in science and engineering have influenced the ways in which people interact
with one another and with their surrounding natural environment. Not only do science
and engineering affect society; society's decisions (whether made through market
forces or political processes) influence the work of scientists and engineers. These
decisions sometimes establish goals and priorities for improving or replacing
technologies; at other times they set limits, such as in regulating the extraction of raw
materials or in setting allowable levels of pollution from mining, farming, and industry.
https://www.nextgenscience.org/sites/default/files/APPENDIX%20J%204.15.13%20for
%20Final%20Release.pdf
SMR 1.3.a: Apply knowledge of patterns characteristic of natural phenomena and
engineered systems. - ANS-From NGSS:
Observed patterns in nature guide organization and classification and prompt questions
about relationships and causes underlying them.
- Different patterns may be observed at each of the scales at which a system is studied
and can provide evidence for causality in explanations of phenomena.
- Macroscopic patterns are related to the nature of microscopic and atomic-level
structure.
- Graphs, charts, and images can be used to identify patterns in data.
- Patterns in rates of change and other numerical relationships can provide information
about natural systems.
- Patterns can be used to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
- Patterns of performance of designed systems can be analyzed and interpreted to
reengineer and improve the system.
"Patterns exist everywhere--in regularly occurring shapes and structures and in
repeating events and relationships. For example, patterns are discernible in the
symmetry of flowers and snowflakes, the cycling of the seasons, and the repeated base
pairs of DNA."
While there are many patterns in nature, they are not the norm since there is a tendency
for disorder to increase (e.g., it is far more likely for a broken glass to scatter than for
scattered bits to assemble themselves into a whole glass). It is in such examples that
patterns exist and the beauty of nature is found. "Noticing patterns is often a first step to
organizing phenomena and asking scientific questions about why and how the patterns
occur."
"Once patterns and variations have been noted, they lead to questions; scientists seek
explanations for observed patterns and for the similarity and diversity within them.
Engineers often look for and analyze patterns, too. For example, they may diagnose
patterns of failure of a designed system under test in order to improve the design, or
they may analyze patterns of daily and seasonal use of power to design a system that
can meet the fluctuating needs."
Patterns figure prominently in the science and engineering practice of "Analyzing and
Interpreting Data." Recognizing patterns is a large part of working with data. Students
might look at geographical patterns on a map, plot data values on a chart or graph, or
visually inspect the appearance of an organism or mineral. The crosscutting concept of
patterns is also strongly associated with the practice of "Using Mathematics and
Computational Thinking." It is often the case that patterns are identified best using
mathematical concepts.
The human brain is remarkably adept at identifying patterns, and students progressively
build upon this innate ability throughout the school experiences.
https://ngss.nsta.org/CrosscuttingConcepts.aspx?id=1
SMR 1.3.b: Analyze cause-and-effect relationships and their mechanisms in natural
phenomena and engineered systems. - ANS-From NGSS:
Events have causes, sometimes simple, sometimes multifaceted. Deciphering causal
relationships, and the mechanisms by which they are mediated, is a major activity of
science and engineering.
- Cause and effect relationships may be used to predict phenomena in natural or
designed systems.
- Phenomena may have more than one cause, and some cause and effect relationships
in systems can only be described using probability.
- Relationships can be classified as causal or correlational, and correlation does not
necessarily imply causation.
- Cause and effect relationships can be suggested and predicted for complex natural
and human designed systems by examining what is known about smaller scale
mechanisms within the system.
"In engineering, the goal is to design a system to cause a desired effect, so cause-andeffect relationships are as much a part of engineering as of science. Indeed, the
process of design is a good place to help students begin to think in terms of cause and
effect, because they must understand the underlying causal relationships in order to
devise and explain a design that can achieve a specified objective."
At early ages, this involves "doing" something to the system of study and then watching
to see what happens. At later ages, experiments are set up to test the sensitivity of the
parameters involved, and this is accomplished by making a change (cause) to a single
component of a system and examining, and often quantifying, the result (effect).
https://ngss.nsta.org/CrosscuttingConcepts.aspx?id=2
SMR 1.3.c: Apply knowledge of the concepts of scale, proportion, and quantity to
describe and compare natural and engineered systems. - ANS-From NGSS:
In considering phenomena, it is critical to recognize what is relevant at different size,
time, and energy scales, and to recognize proportional relationships between different
quantities as scales change.
- Time, space, and energy phenomena can be observed at various scales using models
to study systems that are too large or too small.
- Proportional relationships (e.g., speed as the ratio of distance traveled to time taken)
among different types of quantities provide information about the magnitude of
properties and processes.
- Phenomena that can be observed at one scale may not be observable at another
scale.
- The observed function of natural and designed systems may change with scale.
- Scientific relationships can be represented through the use of algebraic expressions
and equations.
Scale, Proportion, and Quantity are important in both science and engineering.
An understanding of scale involves not only understanding systems and processes vary
in size, time span, and energy, but also different mechanisms operate at different
scales. In engineering, "no structure could be conceived, much less constructed, without
the engineer's precise sense of scale...At a basic level, in order to identify something as
bigger or smaller than something else--and how much bigger or smaller--a student must
appreciate the units used to measure it and develop a feel for quantity." "The ideas of
ratio and proportionality as used in science can extend and challenge students'
mathematical understanding of these concepts."
The crosscutting concept of Scale, Proportion, and Quantity figures prominently in the
practices of "Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking" and in "Analyzing and
Interpreting Data." Scale and proportion are often best understood using models. For
example, the relative scales of objects in the solar system or of the components of an
atom are difficult to comprehend mathematically (because the numbers involved are
either so large or so small), but visual or conceptual models make them much more
understandable (e.g., if the solar system were the size of a penny, the Milky Way galaxy
would be the size of Texas).
https://ngss.nsta.org/CrosscuttingConcepts.aspx?id=3
SMR 1.3.d: Apply knowledge of how systems are defined and studied and of how
system models are used to make predications. - ANS-From NGSS:
A system is an organized group of related objects or components; models can be used
for understanding and predicting the behavior of systems.
- Models can be used to represent systems and their interactions--such as inputs,
processes and outputs--and energy and matter flows within systems.
- Systems may interact with other systems; they may have sub-systems and can be a
part of larger complex systems.
- Models are limited in that they only represent certain aspects of the system under
study.
Systems and System Models are useful in science and engineering because the world
is complex, so it is helpful to isolate a single system and construct a simplified model of
it. "To do this, scientists and engineers imagine an artificial boundary between the
system in question and everything else. They then examine the system in detail while
treating the effects of things out the boundary as either forces acting on the system or
flows of matter and energy across it--for example, the gravitational force due to Earth on
a book lying on a table or the carbon dioxide expelled by an organism. Consideration of
flows into and out of the system is a crucial element of system design. In the laboratory
or even in field research, the extent to which a system under study can be physically
isolated or external conditions controlled is an important element of the design of an
investigation and interpretation of results...The properties and behavior of the whole
system can be very different from those of any of its parts, and large systems may have
emergent properties, such as the shape of a tree, that cannot be predicted in detail from
knowledge about the components and their interactions."
"Models can be valuable in predicting a system's behaviors or in diagnosing problems
or failures in its functioning, regardless of what type of system is being examined...In a
simple mechanical system, interactions among the parts are describable in terms of
forces among them that cause changes in motion or physical stresses. In more complex
systems, it is not always possible or useful to consider interactions at this detailed
mechanical level, yet it is equally important to ask what interactions are occurring (e.g.,
predator-prey relationships in an ecosystem) and to recognize that they all involve
transfers of energy, matter, and (in some cases) information among parts of the
system...Any model of a system incorporates assumptions and approximations; the key
is to be aware of what they are and how they affect the model's reliability and precision.
Predictions may be reliable but not precise or, worse, precise but not reliable; the
degree of reliability and precision needed depends on the use to which the model will be
put."
https://ngss.nsta.org/CrosscuttingConcepts.aspx?id=4
SMR 1.3.e: Apply knowledge of the flow, cycling, and conservation of energy and matter
to analyze natural and engineered systems. - ANS-From NGSS:
Tracking energy and matter flows, into, out of, and within systems helps one understand
their system's behavior.
- Matter is conserved because atoms are conserved in physical and chemical
processes.
- Energy may take different forms (e.g., energy in field, thermal energy, energy of
motion).
-Within a natural system, the transfer of energy drives the motion and/or cycling of
matter.
- The transfer of energy can be tracked as energy flows through a natural system.
- Changes of energy and matter in a system can be described in terms of energy and
matter flows into, out of, and within that system.
- Energy drives the cycling of matter within and between systems.
Energy and Matter are essential concepts in all disciplines of science and engineering,
often in connection with systems.
"In many systems there also are cycles of various types. In some cases, the most
readily observable cycle may be matter--for example, water going back and forth
between Earth's atmosphere and its surface and subsurface reservoirs."
"Consideration of energy and matter inputs, outputs, and flows or transfers within a
system or process are equally important for engineering."
https://ngss.nsta.org/CrosscuttingConcepts.aspx?id=5
SMR 1.3.f: Analyze the relationship between structure and function in natural and
engineered systems. - ANS-From NGSS:
The way an object is shaped or structured determines many of its properties and
functions.
- Structures can be designed to serve particular functions by taking into account
properties of different materials, and how materials can be shaped and used.
- Complex and microscopic structures and systems can be visualized, modeled, and
used to describe how their function depends on the shapes, composition, and
relationships among its parts, therefore complex natural structures/systems can be
analyzed to determine how they function.
Structure and Function are complementary properties. The shape and stability of
structures of natural and designed objects relate to their function(s). The functioning of
natural and built systems alike depends on the shapes and relationships of certain key
parts as well as on the properties of the materials from which they are made. For
example, the substructures of molecules are not particularly important in understanding
the phenomenon of pressure, but they are relevant to understanding why the ratio
between temperature and pressure at constant volume is different for different
substances.
"Similarly, understanding how a bicycle works is best addressed by examining the
structures and their functions at the scale of, say, the frame, wheels, and pedals. In this
way, the builder can seek less dense materials with appropriate properties; this pursuit
may lead in turn to an examination of the atomic-scale structure of candidate materials."
https://ngss.nsta.org/CrosscuttingConcepts.aspx?id=6
SMR 1.3.g: Analyze the factors contributing to stability and change in systems (e.g.,
static and dynamic equilibrium, feedback) and the rates at which systems change. -
ANS-From NGSS:
For both designed and natural systems, conditions that affect stability and factors that
control rates of change are critical elements to consider and understand.
- Stability may be disturbed either by sudden events or gradual changes that
accumulate over time.
- Explanations of stability and change in natural and designed systems can be
constructed by examining the changes over time and processes at different scales,
including the atomic scale.
- Small changes in one part of a system might cause large changes in another part.
- Systems in dynamic equilibrium are stable due to a balance of feedback mechanisms.
Such stability can take different forms, with the simplest being a static equilibrium, such
as a ladder leaning on a wall. By contrast, a system with steady inflows and outflows
(i.e., constant conditions) is said to be in dynamic equilibrium. A repeating pattern of
cyclic change--such as the moon orbiting Earth--can also be seen as a stable situation,
even though it is clearly not static.
"An understanding of dynamic equilibrium is crucial to understanding the major issues in
any complex system--for example, population dynamics in an ecosystem or the
relationship between the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide and Earth's average
temperature. Dynamic equilibrium is an equally important concept for understanding the
physical forces in matter. Stable matter is a system of atoms in dynamic equilibrium."
"In designing systems for stable operation, the mechanisms of external controls and
internal 'feedback' loops are important design elements; feedback is important to
understanding natural systems as well. A feedback loop is any mechanism in which a
condition triggers some action that causes a change in the same condition, such as the
temperature of a room triggering the thermostatic control that turns the room's heater on
or off."
https://ngss.nsta.org/CrosscuttingConcepts.aspx?id=7
SMR 2.1.a: Analyze the basic substructure of an atom (i.e., protons, neutrons, and
electrons). - ANS-The atom is largely empty space with electrons moving about. Within
the center of the atom is the atomic nucleus. The nucleus is tiny and has very high
density. Surrounding the nucleus are the electrons. This electron cloud constitutes most
of the volume of the atom.
Protons (p+) have a positive charge (+1) and a relative mass of 1. The number of
protons identifies the element and equals the number of electrons, so atoms are
electrically neutral. They are found in the nucleus with neutrons.
Neutrons (n0) have a neutral charge (0) and a relative mass of 1. The number of
neutrons in an atom can vary (the variation is what distinguishes isotopes) and they are
found in the nucleus with protons.
Electrons (e-) have a negative charge (-1) and a relative mass of 1/1836. They have a
very tiny mass and they move around the nucleus in electron shells.
Electron shells are the regions of space around the nucleus. An atom can have up to 7
shells called K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q. Each shell holds up to a certain number of
electrons with the first shell holding 2 and each subsequent one holding up to 8. The
further away the shell is from the nucleus, the higher the energy of its electrons (the
shells close to the nucleus are more stable). If the very last shell, called the outer shell,
is full or has 8 electrons (octet), then the atom is stable. Each shell consists of orbital, or
probability, clouds, and the positions of electrons cannot be exactly determined at any
one time.
The mass number (A) is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in a nucleus.
The atomic number (N) is the number of neutrons subtracting the atomic number from
the mass number.
The atomic weight is the total number of particles in an atom's nucleus.
SMR 2.1.b: Differentiate between atoms and their isotopes, ions, molecules, elements,
and compounds. - ANS-An atom is the smallest particle that represents an element. In
other words it is the smallest part of a substance that exists and retains the properties of
that substance.
Isotopes are atoms with differing numbers of neutrons that affect the mass number
(which is made up of protons and neutrons). Thus, different isotopes of a given element
will have different mass numbers. However, differing isotopes with different numbers of
neutrons will still have the same chemical properties.
To find the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an isotope: [Show Less]