BIOS 252 Unit 8 Final Exam STUDY GUIDE 2
Chapter 10:
1. Muscle properties and definitions
a. Electrical excitability- nerve
... [Show More] impulses
b. Contractibility- ability to contract
c. Extensibility- ability to stretch without damage
d. Elasticity- ability to come back to original shape
2. Isometric contraction vs. isotonic contractions
a. Isometric- muscle has tension but does not change in length (holds book straight and in place without moving it.)
b. Isotonic- tension is constant, muscle length changes**MUSCLES DO NOT GO WIDE, ONLY SHORTEN OR LENGHTEN**
Chapter 11:
1. Steps in skeletal muscle contraction
a. From neuron voltage gated channel opens up, calcium comes in and triggers the movement of vesicles carrying the ACTH to exocytose the neuron membrane the neurotransmitter ACTH gets released into the synaptic cleft and lands on the receptor sites on the muscle this opens ligand-gated sodium channels and causes the muscle to move Because the muscle gets excited, the T-tubules are also attached to them and when those get excited they open voltage gated channels on the sarcoplasmic reticulum that holds the calciumThe calcium binds to the troponin exposing the actin sites for the myosin heads to get attached. ATP helps give energy for the contraction cycle that moves the myosin heads, attaches and detaches.
2. Definitions:
a. Origin- attachment to stationary bone
b. Insertion- the attachment to the movable bone
c. Antagonist- relaxes, stretches, yields to action of prime mover
d. Agonist- prime mover
3. Identification of parts of lever system
a. Effort- movement
b. Load- resistance or weight
c. Fulcrum- joint
In order for movement to happen, effort must overcome the load
i. Mechanical advantage= load is closer to fulcrum than effort
ii. Mechanical disadvantage= load is further away from fulcrum
iii. 1st class (EFL) think head moving up, E- neck muscle, F- atlas/axis, L- load of head. 2nd class (ELF) think tiptoe, E- gastroconemic muscle, L- weight, F- joint in toes. 3rd class (FEL) think lifting arm, F- elbow joint, E- bicep muscle, L book you are holding.
Chapter 12 7:20
1. EPSP vs. IPSP (neurotransmitter)
a. Excitatory postsynaptic potentials- depolarizing postsynaptic potential causing sodium channels to open. The excitatory neurotransmitter type- acetylcholine
b. Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials- hyperpolarizing postsynaptic potential- the inhibitory neurotransmitter- GABA- CHANNEL OPENING IS CHLORIDE IN OR POTASSIUM OUT
2. 11:35 Graded potentials vs. action potentials (location) pg. 424
a. GP-happen at dendrites and cell bodies.
b. AP-happens at trigger zone at axon hillock
3. 14:25 Neuroglial cells and functions (6 kinds, 4 CNS, 2 PNS)
a. Astrocytes- connects neuron to blood vessel, helps with environment and nourishment also mediate (what goes in or out) the blood brain barrier
b. Microglial- acts as phagocytosis( comes from white blood cells)
c. Oligodendrocytes- makes myelin sheath, can not regenerate.
d. Ependymal- make spinal fluid
e. Schwann- makes mylen, able to regenerate because of nurolemma
f. Satellite supportive structure.
Chapter 13 22:10
1. Internal anatomy of spinal cord (which types of neurons go through them)
a. Anterior horn- descending tracts – efferent- motor and autonomic
b. Posterior horn- ascending tracts- afferent- sensory
c. Lateral horn- interneuron
2. Cervical enlargement (Part of body the nerves supply) – upper limbs, both sensory & motor
3. Lumbar enlargement (Part of body the nerves supply)- lower limbs, both sensory & motor
4. Autonomic nervous system (which effector to they control) sympathetic and parasympethic, glands and smooth/cardiac muscle
5. Ascending tracts- afferent- sensory vs. Descending tracts- efferent- motor
6. 34:35 *Note: reflexes help control heart rate, digestion, blood pressure, and pupil size
Chapter 14 36:17
1. Meninges layer
a. Pia IN
b. Arachnoid MIDDLE
c. Dura OUT
2. Cranial nerves (number and function) OOOTTAFVGVAH
a. Olfactory- smell
b. Optic- sight
c. Oculomoter – movement of eye, adjust lenses
d. Trochlear- movement of eye
e. Trigeminal- touch pain, and oral cavity, chewing
f. Abducense- movement of eye
g. Facial- taste, thermal sensation, control muscle of facial expressions
h. Vestibulocochlear- hearing and equilibrium
i. Glossopharyngeal- swallow and secrete saliva taste from posterior 1/3 of tongue
j. Vagus- swallow, vocalization, coughing,
k. Accessory- movement of head/pectoral girdle
l. Hypoglosses- speech, manipulation of food, swallowing.
3. Wernicke’s area (function)- speech comprehension, if damaged= word salad/ aphasia. Towards occipital lobe
4. Broca’s area(function)- speech production, if damaged= can’t verbalized/ non-fluent aphasia In dominant frontal cortex
5. Location of:
a. Primary motor area- frontal lobe- can’t move left leg= right side of frontal lobe is damaged
b. Primary somatosensory area- postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe
c. Visual cortex- occipital lobe
6. Functions of:
a. Hypothalamus- hormone, temp regulation, circadian rhythms, regulate eat/drink, emotional behavior patterns
b. Hippocampus- immediate and short term memory.
c. Medulla oblongata- vital for all life process, respiratory and cardiac centers.
d. Cerebellum- balance
e. Corpus callosum- connects left and right hemispheres of brain
7. CNS vs. PNS (components)
a. CNS= brain and spinal cord
b. PNS= somatic, autonomic, enteric, cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia, enteric plexuses in small intestine, sensory receptors.
8. Location of all 4 ventricles
a. PICTURE- 1&2 = lateral in cerebrum, 3rd is above thalamus, 4th is btwn cerebellum and brainstem
Chapter 15 or 16:
1. Sensory modalities (how many for a single neuron)- touch, pain, vision, hearing vibrations= only per neuron.
2. Sensory Receptors
a. Photoreceptors- vision, rods and cones
b. Mechanoreceptors- touch, pressure, vibration
c. Nociceptors- pain
d. Thermoreceptors temperature
e. Proprioreceptors- muscles, tendons, joints
f. Chemoreceptors- sensitive to chemical changes & smell, taste
Chapter 17:
1. Cochlea (function)- vibration comes in from external ear and it is translated to hearing
2. Semicircular canal (function)- balance
3. Presbyopia age related farsightedness, Hyperopia farsightedness, and Myopia near sightness (what is lens doing in order to accommodate) lens changing shape to accommodate either concave or convex-
4. Cones/Rods- cones- light, rods-dark
5. Olfactory receptor (what type of receptor) chemoreceptors- smell. Found in superior part of nasal cavity.
6. Iris (description)- color portion of eye
7. Primary taste sensations- salt, sour, sweet, bitter, umami(-meaty, savory)
8. 54:10 Special senses- smell, taste, vision, hearing, equilibrium
9. Optic Chiasm (function)- cross of optic nerve
10. Blind spot- where optic nerve exits, no rods or cones (photoreceptors)
Chapter 18: 55:28
1. Endocrine glands secrete hormones, do not have ducts, they secrete hormones directly into the interstitial fluid that surrounds them. Hormones diffuse into the blood stream through capillaries and they are carried to target cells around the body.
a. Includes pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal and pancreas.
2. 57:9 Pituitary gland (Identification: hormones secreted from each lobe and how each side is regulated)
a. Two parts of pituitary gland,
i. Anterior lobe 7 hormones
1. HGH, FSH, TSH, LH, PRL, ACTH, MSH
ii. Posterior lobe-
1. OT & ADH
b. Regulated by hypothalamus by hormone releasing another hormones (tropic effect)
i. Goes down through hypophyseal portal system infundibulum.
Nerve or chemical stimulation is another way to regulate hormones
1:3:00-
• TRH (thyroid releasing hormone) comes out of the hypothalamus goes to the anterior lobe of pituitary gland trigger release of TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) target organ is thyroid **need iodine**= releases T3 & T4
• PRH (prolactin releasing hormone) comes out of the hypothalamus goes to the anterior lobe of pituitary gland trigger release of PRL (prolactin) target organ is mammary glands production of milk
• FSHRH (follicle-stimulating hormone releasing hormone) & LH (luteinizing hormone releasing hormone) come out of the hypothalamus goes to the anterior lobe of pituitary gland trigger release of gonadadotrophs target ovaries (maturing of eggs) and testes (sperm).
• ADHRH (anti-diruitic hormone releasing hormone. Aka vasopressin) comes out of hypothalamus goes to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland target kidney (reabsorption of water around the kidney)
• OTRH (oxytocin releasing hormone) comes out of hypothalamus goes to the posterior lobe of pituitary gland trigger release of oxytocin target is ejection of milk stimulated by suckling of baby or uterus contractions.
3. 1:8:47 Adrenal Gland on top of kidney
a. OUTTER Cortex (general category hormones) has 3 regions that secrete different hormones
a. mineralocorticoids- aldosterone regulating sodium/potassium (blood pressure)
b. Glucocorticoid- cortisol (blood glucose)
c. Androgens - DHEA
b. and INNER Medulla hormones
a. Epinephrine
b. Norepinephrine
4. 1:13:20 Paracrine secretion does not secrete, act locally on neighboring cells, 1:14:37autocrine once cell secrets and effects itself, and endocrine acts on a different or far away cell differences
5. Infundibulum (function) portal system and connection btwn hypothalamus and pituitary gland
6. Pancreas (function and hormones) has both exocrine and endocrine, exocrine function has to do with the digestive system. Endocrine has to do with the regulation of insulin and glucagon.
7. Mechanism of actions of lipid and water soluble hormones
a. Types of water and lipid soluble hormones-
b. Location of receptor sites for each category
a. Lipid (steroid hormone, thyroid hormone, and nitric oxide) – circulated bound to transport proteins, can go inside of nucleus- can penetrate the cell membrane and reach nucleus
b. Water (amine hormone, epi, norepi, dopamine, peptide and protein hormone, eicosanoid hormone)- circulate freely in the plasma, can go only on membrane of cell- activates G protein and secondary messenger system, cannot go inside cell.
8. 1:18:37 Parathyroid gland- found on posterior side of thyroid gland. Regulates blood calcium, hormone is calcitonin (helps to reduce calcium in blood) and parathyroid hormone (raising blood calcium and tells kidney to release calcitriol- helps to reabsorb calcium through digestive system through what we eat)
9. 1:21:05 Type I vs. Type II diabetes mellitus
a. Type 1 insulin dependent- pancreas does not produce insulin
b. Type 2 adult onset. Can regulate via meds or healthy diet.
• Polyuria- excessive urine
• Polyphagia- excessive thirst
• Polydipsia- excessive hunger
IDENTIFICATION
A. Muscles
1. Biceps brachii- upper arm
2. Deltoid- shoulder
3. Latissimus dorsi- lower back
4. Pectoralis major- upper chest
5. External obliques- on top of abdomen
6. Rectus abdominus- abdomen
7. Lateral- outer side, moves eye laterally, medial- inner side, moves eye in, superior- on top, moves eye out and down, and inferior recti- below eye, moves eye in and up muscles.
B. Vision
1. Cornea- ___________
2. Retina- back of the eye
3. Lens- behind the _____
4. Sclera- white part of eye
5. Optic nerve- back of eye
C. Hearing
1. Cochlea
2. Tympanic membrane
3. Ossicles
D. Brain
1. Temporal- sides, frontal- front, Parietal- top, and occipital- back lobes
2. Medulla oblongata
3. Corpus callosum- connection btwn left and right hemespheres.
4. Cerebellum- back ball- balance
5. Horns (anterior and posterior)
6. Trigeminal nerve (on the brain) identify where on the brain
7. Pineal gland- circle in the middle of the brain
E. Adrenal gland (cortex out and medulla in)
F. Cells of thyroid gland- follicular cells (simple cuboidal cells surrounding the thyroid follicle. Parafollicular © cells- on the edges next to the follicular cells) [Show Less]