Biol235 Quiz 2 1. What forces act on a lever in muscles 2. A good analogy is a spring on a door. In this example, the part of the spring attached to the
... [Show More] frame is the origin; the part attached to t he door represents the insertion. A useful rule of thumb is that the origin is usually proximal and the insertion distal; the insertion is usually pulled toward the origin. 3. Identify the glute max on a diagram and know its actions a. the movement of gluteus maximus with figure of 11.3(b) - Gluteus maximus main actions are to extend and laterally rotate the hip joint. Furthermore, upper fibers can abduct the hip whereas the lower fibers can adduct. b. The gluteus maximus is the largest and heaviest of the three muscles and is one of the largest muscles in the body. It is the chief extensor of the femur. In its reverse muscle action (RMA), it is a powerful extensor of the torso at the hip joint. c. The gluteus medius is mostly deep to the gluteus maximus and is a powerful abductor of the femur at the hip joint. It is a common site for intramuscular injection. d. The gluteus minimus is the smallest of the gluteal muscles and lies deep to the gluteus medius. 4. What is the relationship between sternocleidomastoid and splenius capitis - Biletaral contraction of splenius capitis results in extension of the head on the neck. When it contracts unilaterally, it acts in synergy with the contralateral sternocleidomastoid muscle, resulting in lateral flexion and rotation of the head towards the ipsilateral side. The relationship between these muscles when bowing you head is C) The sternocleidomastoid is the prime mover and the splenius cervicis is the antagonist. The principle muscles that are primarily responsible for causing a given action about a joint are referred to as the agonist muscles or the prime movers. The muscle that opposes that movement and returns the body part to the original position is called the antagonist muscle. A muscle which stabilizes a joint around which the movement is occurring and can assist in creating movement is known as a synergist muscle. 5. Know ab muscles from superficial to deep - orders of abdominal muscles from superficial to deep - external oblique muscles form the superficial layer, while the internal oblique muscles form the middle layer, and the transverses abdominus forms the deepest layer. 6. Origin - the attachment of a muscle’s tendon to the stationary bone. 7. Insertion– know the insertion - the attachment of the muscle’s other tendon to the movable bone. 8. What are the actions of the deltoid? deltoid movements on arm – flexion and extension (posterior fibers), abduction of shoulder (all fibers), intermediate fibers stabilize the head of the humerus - Lateral fibers abduct arm at shoulder joint; anterior fibers flex and medially rotate arm at shoulder joint; posterior fi bers extend and laterally rotate arm at shoulder joint. 9. What muscles are involved in forceful breathing? - Forced or labored breathing involves the sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles to lift the upper rib cage even more than in normal breathing. By lifting the upper portion of the rib cage the action of the intercostals is magnified. Forced exhalation employs the internal intercostals and the abdominal muscles. - type of neuron circuit for breathing – a reverberating circuit controls respiration Among the body responses thought to be the result of output signals from reverberating circuits are breathing, coordinated muscular activities, waking up, and short-term memory. It helps with breathing by lengthening output signal Be able to identify the reverberating circuit using the diagram 10. What are the sensory, motor, and integrative functions in the nervous system? Know definitions of each • Sensory function - Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli, such as an increase in blood pressure, or external stimuli (for example, a raindrop landing on your arm). This sensory information is then carried into the brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves. • Integrative function - The nervous system processes sensory information by analyzing it and making decisions for appropriate responses—an activity known as integration. • Motor function - Once sensory information is integrated, the nervous system may elicit an appropriate motor response by activating effectors (muscles and glands) through cranial and spinal nerves. Stimulation of the effectors causes muscles to contract and glands to secrete. 11. Identify Ependymal cells and Astrocytes on the diagram of neuroglia, they produce cerebrospinal fluid - Ependymal cells are cuboidal to columnar cells arranged in a single layer that possess microvilli and cilia. These cells line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord (spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which protects and nourishes the brain and spinal cord). Function - ependymal cells produce, possibly monitor, and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid. They also form the blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier. 12. Define a synapse and know where it occurs 13. Define a bipolar neuron and be able to identify a drawing of it bipolar neuron - Bipolar neurons have one main dendrite and one axon. They are found in the retina of the eye, the inner ear, and the olfactory area of the brain. 14. Define a polarized cell - A cell that exhibits a membrane potential is said to be polarized. Most body cells are polarized; the membrane potential varies from _5 mV to _100 mV in different types of cells. 15. How does the nervous system distinguish between a light touch and a heavy touch? Frequency of impulses sent to sensory centers is changing 16. What are the three ways a neurotransmitter is removed or depleted (1) destruction of the neurotransmitter by degradative enzymes (2) diffusion of the neurotransmitter away from the post-synaptic receptors; (3) reuptake of the neurotransmitter either by the pre-synaptic terminal or by other cells. 17. Where is cerebrospinal fluid found in the CNS - The CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater) and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It fills the ventricles of the brain, cisterns, and sulci, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. 18. Know function and location of anterior gray horn inside spinal cord. ID on a photo of the tissue, not the drawn diagram - the anterior horn contains cell bodies of alpha motor neurons, which innervate skeletal muscle to cause movement. - The anterior gray horns contain cell bodies of somatic motor neurons and motor nuclei that are responsible for the nerve impulses for skeletal muscle contraction. 19. Know characteristics and function of dermatomes - The area of the skin that provides sensory input to the CNS via one pair of spinal nerves or the trigeminal (V) nerve is called a dermatome. The nerve supply in adjacent dermatomes overlaps somewhat. - Knowing which spinal cord segments supply each dermatome makes it possible to locate damaged regions of the spinal cord. 20. Know definition and function of rami communicantes and what would happen if it was damaged Rami communicantes - Branches of a spinal nerve that are components of the autonomic nervous system. Singular is ramus communicans - white rami communicantes contain myelinated preganglionic axons; gray rami communicantes contain unmyelinated postganglionic axons. - the myelinated preganglionic sympathetic axons pass into the anterior root of a spinal nerve and enter a short pathway called a white ramus before passing to the nearest sympathetic trunk ganglion on the same side. Collectively, the white rami are called the white rami communicantes. Thus, white rami communicantes are structures containing sympathetic preganglionic axons that connect the anterior ramus of the spinal nerve with the ganglia of the sympathetic trunk. The “white” in their name indicates that they contain myelinated axons. Only the thoracic and first two or three lumbar nerves have white rami communicantes. - gray rami communicantes are structures containing sympathetic postganglionic axons that connect the ganglia of the sympathetic trunk to spinal nerves (see Figure 15.4). The “gray” in their name indicates that they contain unmyelinated axons. Gray rami communicantes outnumber the white rami because there is a gray ramus leading to each of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The axons of the postganglionic neurons that leave the sympathetic trunk to enter spinal nerves provide sympathetic innervation to the visceral effectors in the skin of the neck, trunk, and limbs, including sweat glands, smooth muscle in blood vessels, and arrector pili muscles of hair follicles. 21. Know steps of stretch reflex in order Steps in order of a stretch reflex 1. Slight stretching of a muscle stimulates sensory receptors in the muscle called muscle spindles. The spindles monitor changes in the length of the muscle. 2. In response to being stretched, a muscle spindle generates one or more nerve impulses that propagate along a somatic sensory neuron through the posterior root of the spinal nerve and into the spinal cord. 3. In the spinal cord (integrating center), the sensory neuron makes an excitatory synapse with, and thereby activates, a motor neuron in the anterior gray horn. 4. If the excitation is strong enough, one or more nerve impulses arises in the motor neuron and propagates, along its axon, which extends from the spinal cord into the anterior root and through peripheral nerves to the stimulated muscle. The axon terminals of the motor neuron form NMJs with skeletal muscle fibers of the stretched muscle. 5. Acetylcholine released by nerve impulses at the NMJs triggers one or more muscle action potentials in the stretched muscle (effector), and the muscle contracts. Thus, muscle stretch is followed by muscle contraction, which relieves the stretching. 22. Define/explain the reciprocal inhibition reflex - reciprocal innervation: when the stretched muscle contracts during a stretch reflex, antagonistic muscles that oppose the contraction relax. This type of arrangement, in which the components of a neural circuit simultaneously cause contraction of one muscle and relaxation of its antagonists, is termed reciprocal innervation 23. What kind of structure or cell junctions does the blood brain barrier have - blood brain barrier: The blood–brain barrier (BBB) consists mainly of tight junctions that seal together the endothelial cells of brain blood capillaries and a thick basement membrane that surrounds the capillaries. astrocytes are one type of neuroglia; the processes of many astrocytes press up against the capillaries and secrete chemicals that maintain the permeability characteristics of the tight junctions. A few water-soluble substances, such as glucose, cross the BBB by active transport. Other substances, such as creatinine, urea, and most ions, cross the BBB very slowly. Still other substances— proteins and most antibiotic drugs—do not pass at all from the blood into brain tissue. How- ever, lipid-soluble substances, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol, and most anesthetic agents, are able to access brain tissue freely. Trauma, certain toxins, and inflammation can cause a breakdown of the blood–brain barrier. 24. Define lateral ventricles - lateral ventricles: four CSF-filled cavities within the brain, which are called ventricle. There is one lateral ventricle in each hemisphere of the cerebrum. - 25. Define and describe the pyramids on the medulla oblongata - Pyramids in medulla oblongata - in the medulla oblongata, the axon bundles of the corticospinal tracts form the ventral bulges known as the pyramids. They are white matter (myelinated) 26. Identify the thalamus on a diagram, how does it monitor motor movements? 27. Know functions of thalamus 28. Define and describe the longitudinal fissure - longitudinal fissure in brain anatomy: The most prominent fissure, the longitudinal fissure, separates the cerebrum into right and left halves called cerebral hemispheres. Within the longitudinal fissure between the cerebral hemispheres is the falx cerebri. 29. What are the parts of/functions of the basal ganglia 30. Define and explain hemispheric lateralization - hemispheric lateralization – Although the brain is almost symmetrical on its right and left sides, subtle anatomical differences between the two hemi- spheres exist. For example, in about two-thirds of the popular tion, the planum temporale, a region of the temporal lobe that includes Wernicke’s area, is 50% larger on the left side than on the right side. This asymmetry appears in the human fetus at about 30 weeks gestation. Physiological differences also exist; although the two hemispheres share performance of many functions, each hemisphere also specializes in performing certain unique functions. This functional asymmetry is termed hemispheric lateralization 31. What is the function of the preganglionic neurons and their characteristics 32. What is the function of the vagus nerve 33. What does it mean for an organ to be dually innervated 34. What kind of adrenergic receptors are found in the heart? (Beta 1 receptors – see table 15.2) 35. Compare/know the somatic reflex effectors and the autonomic reflex effectors 36. Know the receptor types that norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to 37. What receptors are separate cells? The ones for the five senses. Think photoreceptors 38. How is tickle, itch, and pressure felt 39. Define the special sense receptors 40. Define narcolepsy 41. Identify the lamellated corpuscle on diagram 16.2 42. Identify the fungiform papillae and know their function, uses figure 17.3 43. Know the steps in the flow of tears in order 44. What happens in the membrane of a photoreceptor cell when it is exposed to light 45. Where do ganglion cells terminate 46. What is the function of the organ of Corti 47. What is the function of the saccula 48. What could possibly happen to your hearing if your facial nerve was damaged? Hint look up what muscle in the inner ear is innervated by the facial nerve 49. Where do the first order neurons of the vestibulocochlear nerve terminate 50. What are the features of an exocrine gland 51. What is a circulating hormone? 52. What is the first messenger when cAMP is the second messenger - Cyclic AMP is termed a second messenger because it translates the presence of the first messenger, the water-soluble hormone, into a response inside the cell. - 53. Identify the posterior pituitary on a diagram and explain what disease you get if it hyposecretes (pituitary dwarfism) 54. Thyroid gland - know structure, location and function - The butterfly-shaped thyroid gland is located just inferior to the larynx (voice box). It is composed of right and left lateral lobes, one on either side of the trachea, that are connected by an isthmus anterior to the trachea. - The thyroid gland is the only endocrine gland that stores its secretory product in large quantities 55. What structure produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) 56. What would happen if the body wasn’t secreting enough aldosterone Info to Review one question about definition of effort and load A lever is a rigid structure that can move around a fixed point called a fulcrum. a lever is acted on at two different points by two different forces: the effort (E), which causes movement, and the load or resistance, which opposes movement. The effort is the force exerted by muscular contraction; the load is typically the weight of the body part that is moved or some resistance that the moving body part is trying to overcome (such as the weight of a book you might be picking up). Motion occurs when the effort applied to the bone at the insertion exceeds the load. identify the astrocytes with figure 12.6 Figure 13.3 – identify anterior gray horn, internal anatomy of spinal cord Question asking which of the answers does not correctly describe a dermatome The skin over the entire body is supplied by somatic sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from the skin into the spinal cord and brain. Each spinal nerve contains sensory neurons that serve a specific, predictable segment of the body. One of the cranial nerves, the trigeminal (V) nerve, serves most of the skin of the face and scalp. The area of the skin that provides sensory input to a nerve the CNS via one pair of spinal nerves or the trigeminal (V) nerve is called a dermatome. The nerve supply in adjacent dermatomes overlaps somewhat. Knowing which spinal cord segments supply each dermatome makes it possible to locate damaged regions of the spinal cord. If the skin in a particular region is stimulated but the sensation is not perceived, the nerves supplying that dermatome are probably damaged. In regions where the overlap is considerable, little loss of sensation may result if only one of the nerves supplying the dermatome is damaged. Information about the innervation patterns of spinal nerves can also be used therapeutically. Cutting posterior roots or infusing local anesthetics can block pain either permanently or transiently. Because dermatomes overlap, deliberate production of a region of complete anesthesia may require that at least three adjacent spinal nerves be cut or blocked by an anesthetic drug. the specific parts (inside cochlea?): invert vibrations into nerve impulse - The inner ear consists of the cochlea and the vestibular (balance) system. The cochlea converts sound waves into chemical electric nerve impulses that travel to the brain via the movement of tiny hair cells. Nerve that regulates visceral organs – vagus nerve Sternocleidomastoid - A unilateral contraction of the SCM muscle flexes the cervical vertebral column to the same side (lateral flexion) and rotates the head to the opposite side. A bilateral contraction elevates the head by dorsally extending the upper cervical joints. what is the antagonist muscle for splenius / what is splenius the antagonist of Splenius capitis is a posterior muscle of the neck. Origin: Attaches to the ligamentum nuchae and the spinous processes of C7 vertebra and the upper 3 or 4 thoracic vertebra. Insertion: Attaches to the mastoid process and at the lateral aspect of the nuchal line. Action: Collectively, with the Splenius cervicis, extends the head and neck; and laterally flexes and rotates the head to the ipsilateral side. Synergist: Semispinalis capitis and cervicis, Splenius cervicis, Spinalis cervicis, Interspinales, Longissimus cervicis, Iliocostalis cervicis, Multifidus. Antagonist: Sternocleidomastoid; Longus colli and capitis; Scalenus anterior, medius, and posterior. preganglion in autonomic motor neurons - In the autonomic nervous system (ANS), fibers from the central nervous system to the ganglion are known as preganglionic fibers. All preganglionic fibers, whether they are in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) or in the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS), are cholinergic—that is, these fibers use acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter—and are myelinated. The ANS is unique in that it requires a sequential two-neuron efferent pathway; the preganglionic neuron must first cross a synapse onto a postganglionic neuron before innervating the target organ. The preganglionic, or first neuron will begin at the outflow and will cross a synapse at the postganglionic, or second neuron’s cell body. The postganglionic neuron will then cross a synapse at the target organ. figure 15.6 what type of the neuron was the red line? – Probably pelvic splanchic nerve. Norepinephrine and epinephrine – biogenic amine neurotransmitters. Norepi plays roles in arousal (awakening from deep sleep), dreaming, and regulating mood. A smaller number of neurons in the brain use epinephrine as a neurotransmitter. Both epinephrine and norepinephrine also serve as hormones. Cells of the adrenal medulla, the inner portion of the adrenal gland, release them into the blood. Known chemically as catecholamines. Alpha & Beta receptors: Adrenergic receptors bind both norepinephrine and epinephrine. The norepinephrine can either be released as a neurotransmitter by sympathetic postganglionic neurons or released as a hormone into the blood by chromaffin cells of the adrenal medullae; epinephrine is released as a hormone. The two main types of adrenergic receptors are alpha receptors and beta receptors, which are found on visceral effectors innervated by most sympathetic postganglionic axons. These receptors are further classified into subtypes based on the specific responses they elicit and by their selective binding of drugs that activate or block them. Although there are some exceptions, activation of alpha 1 and beta 1 receptors generally produces excitation, and activation of alpha 2 and beta 2 receptors causes inhibition of effector tissues. Beta 3 receptors are present only on cells of brown adipose tissue, where their activation causes thermogenesis (heat production). Cells of most effectors contain either alpha or beta receptors; some visceral effector cells contain both. ****Norepinephrine stimulates alpha receptors more strongly than beta receptors; epinephrine is a potent stimulator of both alpha and beta receptors. What sleep disorder appears during the day time? Narcolepsy, a condition in which REM sleep cannot be inhibited during waking periods. As a result, involuntary periods of sleep that last about 15 minutes occur throughout the day. Recent studies have revealed that people with narcolepsy have a deficiency of the neuropeptide orexin, which is also known as hypocretin. Orexin is released from certain neurons of the hypothalamus and has a role in promoting wakefulness. lamellated corpuscle & mechanoreceptor – Pressure, a sustained sensation that is felt over a larger area than touch, occurs with deformation of deeper tissues. Receptors that contribute to sensations of pressure include corpuscles of touch, type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors, and lamellated corpuscles. A lamellated corpuscle or pacinian corpuscle is a large oval structure composed of a multilayered connective tissue capsule that encloses a dendrite. Like corpuscles of touch, lamellated corpuscles adapt rapidly. They are widely distributed in the body: in the dermis and subcutaneous layer; in submucosal tissues that underlie mucous and serous membranes; around joints, tendons, and muscles; in the periosteum; and in the mam- mary glands, external genitalia, and certain viscera, such as the pancreas and urinary bladder. why cut finger more hurts than cut chin – there are more nerve endings and nociceptors in the fingertips than in the chin Figure 16.2 joint kinesthetic receptors: Lamellated corpuscles, type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors, tendon organs, and free nerve endings. They sense Joint position and movement and they adapt rapidly to change. fungiform papillae: mushroom-shaped elevations scattered over the entire surface of the tongue that contain about five taste buds each. photoreceptors related nerve impulse: Photoreceptors (rods and cones) convert light stimuli into an electrical nerve impulse (action potential) This neural information is relayed to the brain via bipolar cells and ganglion cells Bipolar cells transmit the nerve impulses produced by the photoreceptors to ganglion cells Many rod cells may synapse with a single bipolar cell, resulting in low resolution of sensory information (poor acuity) Most cone cells only synapse with a single bipolar cell, resulting in high resolution of sensory information (high acuity) Ganglion cells transmit nerve impulses to the brain via long axonal fibres that compose the optic nerve Signals from ganglion cells may be sent to the visual cortex to form a composite representation of surroundings (i.e. sight) Alternatively, signals may be sent to other brain regions to coordinate eye movements or maintain circadian rhythms There are no photoreceptors present in the region of the retina where ganglion axon fibres feed into the optic nerve This region is called the 'blind spot’ as visual information cannot be processed at this location The brain interpolates details from the surrounding regions, such that individuals do not perceive a visual blind spot where the cochlear vestibulocochlear nerve ends/terminates: Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII) The central processes of the vestibular ganglion cells terminate in vestibular nuclei (medial, lateral, superior, and inferior) in the medulla and pons and in the cerebellum. If you lose facial expression, what else will be affected hearing or balance – if the facial nerve is damaged (ie by something like Bell’s Palsy) it innervates the stapedius muscle in the inner ear. Loss of function of the stapedius muscle may reflect as "hyperacusis," i.e., perception of sound as excessively loud and irritating on the side of damage. This branch also arises at the level of the middle ear. The facial nerve’s main function is motor innervation of the muscles of facial expression. The tensor tympani muscle, which is supplied by the mandibular branch of the tri- geminal (V) nerve, limits movement and increases tension on the eardrum to prevent damage to the inner ear from loud noises. The stapedius muscle, which is supplied by the facial (VII) nerve, is the smallest skeletal muscle in the human body. By dampening large vibrations of the stapes due to loud noises, it protects the oval window, but it also decreases the sensitivity of hearing. exocrine hormone- Secretions of endocrine glands diffuse into interstitial fluid and then into the blood; exocrine secretions flow into ducts that lead into body cavities or to the body surface. pancreas has exocrine part which secrete digestive enzymes and an endocrine part, which secrete hormones (insulin, glucagon etc). circulating hormone and local hormone - Most endocrine hormones are circulating hormones —they pass from the secretory cells that make them into interstitial fluid and then into the blood. Other hormones, termed local hormones, act locally on neighboring cells or on the same cell that secreted them without first entering the bloodstream. Local hormones act on paracrines (neighboring cells) or autocrines (the same cell) first messenger - When a water-soluble hormone binds to its receptor at the outer surface of the plasma, it acts as a first messenger. The first messenger (the hormone) then causes production of a second messenger inside the cell, where specific hormone-stimulated responses take place – second messenger is often C-amp what disorder is it when a person doesn’t secrete enough hormones of posterior pituitary - Hyposecretion of hGH during the growth years slows bone growth, and the epiphyseal plates close before normal height is reached. This condition is called pituitary dwarfism Other organs of the body also fail to grow, and the body proportions are childlike. Treatment requires hGH during childhood, before the epiphyseal plates close. aldosterone - the major mineralocorticoid. It regulates homeostasis of two mineral ions— naaKmely, sodium ions (Na) and potassium ions (K)—and helps adjust blood pressure and blood vHolume. Aldosterone also promotes excretion of H in the urine; this removal of acids from the body can help prevent acidosis (blood pH below 7.35). Aldosterone causes the kidneys to retain Na a, which leads to water retention and elevated blood pressure. Water retention also helps preserve body fluid volume in the case of severe bleeding. what are major three hormones help us fighting long term stress: second stage in the stress response is the resistance response which involves corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH), and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). So the three hormones would be: Corticosteroid, human growth hormone, and thyroid hormone flow of tears order: The most prominent fissure, the longitudinal fissure, separates the cerebrum into right and left halves called cerebral hemispheres. This major portion of the brain is used to monitor movements initiated by motor areas of the cerebrum - Cerebellum Show Less [Show Less]