BIO 2870 NATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FINAL EXAM
1. Common Functions of all living things
a. Responsiveness: responding to a change in the immediate
... [Show More] environment
b. Growth: increase in cell size or cell number
c. Reproduction: creation of new generations of similar organisms
d. Movement: internal or external
e. Metabolism: sum of all chemical reactions in the body (anabolism (small → big, endergonic) and catabolism (big→ small, exergonic))
2. Levels of Biological Organization
a. Chemical Level: atoms, molecules (micromolecules and macromolecules)
b. Cellular Level: combination of macromolecules, protein filaments also represent
c. Tissue Level: combination of cells
d. Organ Level: multiple different tissues
e. Organ System Level: different organs interact to produce a particular function
f. Organism Level: many organ systems working together
3. Homeostasis: a state of internal balance of stable internal environment
a. Negative Feedback: opposes variation within normal limits (thermoregulation)
b. Positive Feedback: response reinforces/exaggerates original stimulus (giving birth)
4. Functions and Components of Organ Systems
Integumentary Skin, hair, nails, protects against environmental hazards, helps control body temperature, provides sensory information
Skeletal Bones, cartilages, ligaments, bone marrow, provides support, protects tissues, stores minerals, forms blood cells
Muscular Muscles, tendons, provides movement and protection, support for other tissue, produces heat
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves Directs immediate responses to stimuli
Coordinates activities of other organ systems
Provides and interprets sensory information about external and internal conditions
Endocrine Glands, thymus, reproductive organs
Directs long-term changes in activities of other organ systems
Cardiovascular Heart, capillaries, artery, veins, blood Transports blood cells and dissolved materials
Lymphatic Lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessel, thymus Defends against infection and disease
Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
Respiratory Nasal cavity, sinus, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung, diaphragm, bronchi Delivers air to the sites in the lungs where gas exchange occurs Produces sound for communication
Digestive Pharynx, salivary gland, mouth, esophagus, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, anus, large intestine, stomach
Processes food and absorbs nutrients
Urinary Urinary bladder, urethra, kidney, ureter Eliminates waste products from the blood
Controls water balance by regulating the volume of urine produced
Reproductive Male: prostate gland, seminal gland, ductus deferens, urethra, epididymis, testis, penis, scrotum
Produces sperm and hormones
Female: mammary gland, uterine tube, ovary, uterus, vagina, external genitalia Produces female sex cells and hormones
Supports embryonic and fetal development from fertilization to birth
Ch. 4: Tissue Level of Organization
1. Epithelial Tissue
a. Characteristics: apical surface (exposed to external environment) to basement membrane (between epithelium and underlying connective tissue, avascular, continuously regenerates
b. Functions
i. Provide physical protection
ii. Control permeability
iii. Provide sensation
iv. Produce specialized secretions
c. Types of Epithelia
i. Simple squamous: lines pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities, the heart and blood vessels, kidney tubules, inner lining of cornea, reduces friction, controls vessel permeability, performs absorption and secretion
ii. Simple cuboidal: glands, ducts, portions of the kidney tubules, thyroid gland, limited protection, secretion, and absorption, secreted buffers and enzymes
iii. Simple columnar: lines stomach, intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts in kidneys , protection, secretion and absorption
iv. Stratified squamous: Lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina, Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack
v. Stratified cuboidal: Ducts of sweat glands and mammary glands
vi. Stratified columnar: parts of the pharynx, epiglottis, anus, and urethra
vii. Pseudostratified columnar: lining nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi along with portions of the male reproductive tract, protection, secretion, moves mucus with cilia
viii. Transitional epithelium: urinary bladder, renal pelvis, ureters, permits expansion and recoil after stretching
d. Glands & Intercellular Connections
i. Cellular junctions: allow firm attachment to basement membrane and to adjacent cells
1. Materials: cell adhesion molecules (CAMs, transmembrane proteins that pass entirely through the membrane) and proteoglycans (proteins with one of more polysaccharide chain attached bind CAMs to each other and to extracellular materials)
2. Tight Junction: lipid layers of adjacent plasma membranes (claudins) are tightly bound together by interlocking membrane proteins, prevent the passage of solutes and water between cells
3. Adhesion Belt: forms a band that encircles cells and binds them to their neighbors, the bands are connected to a network of actin filaments in the cytoskeleton
4. Gap Junctions: two cells are held together by embedded membrane proteins called connexons, the connexons form a narrow passageway that lets small molecules and ions pass from cell to cell
5. Desmosomes: tie adjacent cells together using adherens and proteoglycans to allow intermediate filaments of one cell to (extracellular structure) interact with intermediate filaments of another cell
6. Hemidesmosomes
ii. Modes of secretion
1. Merocrine: product released by exocytosis (saliva glands)
2. Apocrine: apical cytoplasm is lost in secreting products (mammary glands)
3. Holocrine: gland cells burst, new cells must take their place after secretion (sebaceous glands)
2. Connective Tissue
a. Components: cells surrounded by a matrix (extracellular fibers and ground substance), highly vascular, contain sensory receptors
b. Cells:
i. Fibroblasts: produce connective tissue fibers and ground substance, most common
ii. Macrophages: phagocytize damaged cells, release chemicals that mobilize the immune system
iii. Mast Cells: packed with granules (filled with histamine and heparin)
iv. Adipocytes: contain large lipid droplet
c. Connective Tissue Proper
i. Dense: tough, strong, durable, more fibers (collagen) and less ground substance
1. Regular: between skeletal muscles and skeleton [Show Less]