ATI TEAS Notes – General Anatomy & Physiology of a Human.
- Lowest hierarchy is at the organelles within a cell
- Cells with the same
... [Show More] functions collected into larger groups -> tissues
- Tissues are collected into organs which carry out a single task
- Organs work together in organ systems that perform large-scale functions
Cell Parts
- Organelles -> cell parts that function within a cell
o Coordinate with other organelles to perform a cell’s basic functions
- Ribosomes -> carry out protein synthesis
- Golgi Apparatus -> modifies & packages proteins secreted from a cell
- Mitochondria -> convert energy present in chemical bonds of food accessible to the cell
- Nucleus -> stores & processes instructions contained in the DNA that tell the cell what its functions are
Cells
- Smallest living unit of life
- In humans, some cells function autonomously; ex. Phagocytic white blood cells
- Cells highly specialized to perform a specific function Organs
- Structures composed of several types of tissues & perform one or more functions
Organ Systems
- Functional units composed of several organs
- Functions include: digestion of food, circulation of nutrients, removal of wastes, & reproduction
Vocab:
- Anatomical Position: standard positioning of the body as standing; feet together; arms to the side; with head, eyes, and palms of hands forward
- Cells: the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things are created
- Cellular functions: Processes that include growth, metabolism, replication, protein synthesis, and movement
- Directional Terminology: Words used to explain relationships of locations of anatomical elements
- Organelle: a specialized part of a cell that has a specific function
- Organ: a self-contained part of an organism that performs a specific function
- Reference planes: Planes dividing the body to describe locations: sagittal, transverse, and coronal
- Tissue: a group of cells with similar structure that function together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs
- Superior: Toward the head/upper part of a structure (bird’s-eye view, looking down)
- Inferior: Away from the head/lower part of a structure (bottom view, looking up)
- Lateral- Farther from midline
- Medial- Nearer to midline
- Superficial- Close to the surface of the body.
- Deep- Away from the surface of the body
- Proximal- Nearer to the origination of a structure.
- Distal- Farther from the origination of a structure.
- Anterior- At or near the front of the body
- Posterior- At or near the back of the body
- Prone- Patient laying on their belly, arms that the side.
- Supine- Patient laying on their back, arms that the side.
Circulatory System – Khan Academy
Jobs of the heart:
- Systemic flow (entire body)
- Pulmonary Flow (blood to & from the lungs)
Coronary blood vessels
- Serving the heart muscle itself
- Serve the needs of cells
- Fall under the category of systemic flow
Vein = blood going towards the heart Artery = blood going away from the heart
Valves in the heart are there to keep blood moving in the right direction
Pulmonary = lungs
*bicuspid valve also known as the MITRAL valve
Pulmonary Circulation
- Relying on the right ventricle as the pump
- Deoxygenated blood
Systemic Ventricle
- Relying on the left ventricle as the pump
- Deliver all the blood to the various organs; organs then use up oxygen
Red Blood Cell
- Has no mitochondria, so it is not really using oxygen
- No nucleus
- Made for the purpose of carrying around oxygen
- Don’t really need oxygen
- Each filled with about 250 million hemoglobin proteins
o Each hemoglobin protein can bind to 4 O2 molecules (oxyhemoglobin)
Heart -> gets its oxygen from Systemic circulation (coronary vessels)
Lungs -> gets its oxygen from bronchial arteries/blood vessels stemming off in systemic circulation
- Lots of blood mixing
- Most of the blood goes into the pulmonary veins
- Mixing of pulmonary & systemic circulation
What cells need
- Access to oxygen
- A source of glucose
- A balanced fluid environment with the right amount of water/electrolytes
- Removal of waste (such as carbon dioxide) The heart is a DOUBLE pump (left & right ventricle)
High pressure allows the blood to circulate around the body; low pressure allows for optimal gas exchange in the lungs without broken capillaries
Heart Sounds
- “lub dub”
- aortic & pulmonary valves are closed while the tricuspid and mitral valve are open
- valves prevent backflow of blood (they snap shut)
- When the Tricuspid & mitral valve snap shut, we call that noise -> “Lub” (First heart sound/S1); at this time the pulmonic and Aortic valve open
- “Dub” -> second heart sounds/S2; when the pulmonic & aortic valve shut; Tricuspid & Mitral valve just opened
- Time between “lub dub” -> systole
- Time after “lub” waiting for “dub” -> diastole
Atrioventricular valves
- Between the atrium & ventricles
- Tricuspid & Mitral valves
Layers of the Heart
- Chordae Tendineae -> hold atrioventricular valves in place, keep the valve from flipping backwards ; connect to papillary muscles
- Papillary muscles -> muscles located within the ventricles of the heart
- Interventricular Septum
o “a wall”
o Has very thin & very thick parts
o Very thin part -> membranous
A lot of babies born with holes in this -> VSD (Ventricular Septal Defect)
o Thick part – (bottom) strong muscular part
3 Layers to the Heart Muscle
-
Endocardium
o Most
inner
o Goes all around the valves/ventricles/atria
o Thin layer
o Layer that all the RBCs are bumping up against
o A few cell layers thick
- Myocardium
o Largest chunk of the wall
o “myo” = muscle
o where all the contractile muscle is going to be
o where a lot of the energy is being used up
o When the heart needs oxygen, it’s usually the myocardium
- Pericardium
o Two layers to it
o Gap in between the inner & outer layer
o Might have a little bit of fluid in the gap -> not cells
o Very thin
o Folds in on itself almost like a pancake
o Visceral pericardium (viscera refers to organs)
Inner layer around the heart
Another name -> epicardium
o Parietal pericardium
Layer that is on the outside
Thermoregulation
- Arteriole will be supplying your skin with blood & oxygen via the blood
o Sends off little capillary beds into the skin
- The skin acts as insulation
- Capillaries bypass all this insulation & go right to the surface
- The heat from the blood going to these capillaries will have a much easier time of getting out
- When our body is overheating, the body is going to dilate the capillaries & make them much wider -> vasodilation
- More blood is then going to pass the capillaries
- Therefore a lot more loss of heat to these surroundings
- Why Body temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit?
o All of the body systems work optimally at this temperature
- When the body is cold
o You’re going to make your capillaries as small as possible
o Less heat at the surface area of your skin
Why your skin becomes very cold
- Your body sends impulses through nerves that tells smooth muscle cells whether they should be contracting or relaxing
Arteries
- Carry oxygenated blood (not always)
- Carry blood AWAY from the heart
- HIGH pressure
o Spurts blood if cut; more than a vein
- LOW volume
o Transports a certain amount of blood in a fixed time
o Only approximately 15% of the entire blood volume in your body
- Largest artery in body -> Aorta
Veins
- carry deoxygenated blood (not always)
- Blood isn’t actually blue; Veins look blue because of the optics of light going through skin
- Carry blood TOWARDS the heart
- LOW pressure
- HIGH volume
-blood volume about 65%
Elastic Arteries
- Large & Medium arteries; first few arteries
- Have a protein in the walls of the blood vessel called elastin protein
- Have a lot of elastin protein
- Pressure energy has been converted over into elastic energy
- Balancing out high pressures
Arterioles
- Small branches coming off a small artery
- Dump into a venule
- “muscular arteries”
o wall of the artery is actually very muscular (also applies to small arteries)
o smooth muscle
- Vasoconstriction
o “vaso”” = blood vessel
o tightening down of the blood vessel
o increases resistance
- Blood is going to go to the capillaries from the arterioles
Venule
- feeds into many other venules
- gather together into a giant set of veins
- all these veins then feed into the inferior/superior vena cava
removal, communication, and protection
• Closed Double loop system
o Pulmonary Loop: Deoxygenated blood from Rt. Ventricle to lungs and returns Oxygenated blood to Lt. Atrium
o Systemic Loop: Oxygenated blood from Lt. Ventricle to body, returning Deoxygenated blood to Rt. Atrium
• Systole: Contraction of ventricles (heart expels blood)
• Diastole: Relaxation of ventricles (heart refills with blood)
• SA Node: "Pacemaker" controls contractions via electrical signals
• Blood Pressure: Fluid pressure generated by cardiac cycle (sys/dias)
Artery: Blood vessel that carries blood AWAY from heart
• Aorta: large artery branching off heart to the rest
of the body
o Coronary Artery
o Carotid Artery
o Subclavian Artery
o Common Iliac Artery
o Renal Artery
Vein: Blood vessel that carries blood TO the heart
• Vena Cava- All veins empty here prior to entering the heart
o Jugular Vein
o Subclavian Vein
o Hepatic Portal Vein
o Common Iliac Vein
o Renal Vein
Arteriole: Small artery Venule: Small vein
Capillary: Small blood vessel that connects arterioles to venules Heart: Muscle that pumps blood throughout the body
Blood: The red liquid that circulates in the arteries and veins
• Carries oxygen to and carbon dioxide from the tissues of the body.
• 4 Main Components:
o RBC: Disc shaped cells that carry Hemoglobin and O2
o WBC: Immune defense
o Platelets: Clotting cells
o Plasma: Liquid portion of blood (mostly water)
Disease:
Myocardial Infarction: Heart attack; Death of the heart muscle due to inadequate blood supply Stroke: "Brain Attack." Damage to the brain due to inadequate blood supply
Aneurysm: Localized abnormal, weak spot on a blood vessel wall that causes an outward bulging, likened to a bubble or balloon. Hemorrhage occurs when it bursts.
Atherosclerosis: Narrowing of arteries due to plaque buildup on artery walls Anemia: Not enough healthy RBC
Arrhythmia: Abnormal heart rhythm
• Tachycardia: Too fast
• Bradycardia: Too slow
Hypertension: High blood pressure. Systole is over 140 mmHg; Diastole is over 90 mmHg
Crash Course – The Heart
The Heart transports
- nutrients
- oxygen
- waste
- heat
- hormones
- immune cells throughout the body
Main job -> generating pressure
- generating high hydrostatic pressure to pump blood out of the heart, while also creating low pressure to bring it back in
Blood Pressure
- a measure of the amount of strain your arteries feel as your heart moves your blood around
Placement of Heart
- In the mediastinum cavity between your lungs Fibrous Pericardium
- Fibrous pericardium
- Made of dense connective tissue
- Helps protect heart while anchoring it to surrounding structures
o Parietal Pericardium (outer)
o Serous Fluid
o Visceral Pericardium (inner) aka Epicardium Myocardium
- Made of muscle tissue
- Does all the work of contracting
Endocardium
- Squamous epithelial tissue
*Atria are the low pressure areas; thin walled
*Ventricles are the high pressure areas; true pumps of the heart, need big strong walls
Pulmonary Circulation Loop
- How blood loses Carbon Dioxide into the lungs and trades it for fresh oxygen
- Short
Systemic Loop
- Aorta sends blood to the rest of the body
“Lub dub” Sound
- “Lub” made by the mitral & tricuspid valve closing
- high pressure caused by ventricular contraction -> Systole (first number in bloody pressure)
o the peak pressure produced by the contracting ventricles
- “Dub” sound made by pulmonary semilunar valve & aortic semilunar valves closing
- Diastole -> pressure in your arteries when the ventricles are relaxed; bottom number in blood pressure
Prolonged high blood pressure
- Can damage arterial walls, mess with your circulation; endanger your heart, lungs, brain, kidneys, and nearly every part of you
CPR
- CPR can prolong heart function during cardiac arrest, but it usually can’t save a life without help from a defibrillator
- Can’t correct Fibrillation
- Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
- Can force a fibrillating heart to keep circulating oxygenated blood until help arrives
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
- Striated
- Uses sliding filaments to contract
- Involuntary
- Short, branched out, and interconnected with one or two nuclei
- Cells separated by loose connective tissue called endomysium (full of capillaries to supply oxygen)
- Loaded with energy generating mitochondria – take up as much as 25-35% of each cell (helps resist fatigue)
- Both physically & electrically connected, all of the time
- NEED to be linked in order to have perfect timing
- Some heart cells can generate their own electricity
o Pacemaker cells -> keep your heart beating at the correct rhythm & ensure that each cardiac muscle cell contracts in coordination with the others
o Pacemaker cells are similar to your heart’s very own brain
o Intrinsic Cardiac Conduction System
Transmits electricity along a precisely timed pathway that ends atrial & ventricular contraction (heartbeats)
Begins with pacemaker cells beginning their own action potentials
Pacemaker cells do not need an initial stimulus
Membrane potential slowly moves toward its threshold as sodium & potassium moves in & out
The leakier the membrane gets, the faster it fires action potentials
Pacemaker cells have the leakiest membranes (fastest rhythms; control rate of entire heart; FOUND in the Sinoatrial node (SA Node) in the right Atrium)
Atrioventricular Node (AV Node) located just above the tricuspid valve
o Purkinje Fibers
Signal depolarization in all surrounding cells
Cause ventricles to contract from the bottom up
Fibrillation
- Out of sync behavior
- No coordinated contraction, no “lub dub”
- Person will soon be dead
- Defibrillator used
o Paddles send so much electricity through the heart that they trigger action potentials in all of the cells at once
o Cells then repolarize and start leaking again
o SA node reaches its threshold & resets the rhythm of the heart
ATI Book Cardiovascular System
Describes the movement of blood & lymph around the body, which permits nutrient distribution, waste removal, communication, and protection
Open lymphatic system -> comprises lymph that bathes the interstitial spaces between cells & is circulated through lymph vessels
Functions
- Transporting nutrients & wastes
- Transporting Chemical messengers
- Transporting immune molecules
Closed Circulatory System
- a double loop system
- consisting of thick-walled arteries that transport blood away from the heart
- thinner-walled veins that transport blood to the heart
- capillaries made of a single layer of endothelium that form a network that connect arteries to veins in tissues
Open Circulatory System
- capillaries drain interstitial fluid that fills the spaces between the cells and filter it through a system of lymph nodes that are enriched in lymphocytes & provide surveillance by the immune system
- Lymph drains into the large veins leading back to the heart
- Lymph -> plasma with the RBCs removed
- Large #’s of leukocytes and lymphocytes are enriched in lymph nodes
o Monitor and respond to foreign molecules washed into the system
o Typically enriched in oral, nasal, and genital regions
Open Lymphatic System
- Circulates & filters interest cells and eventually drains into the circulatory system
Double Loop System
- Pulmonary Loop
o Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs & returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium
- Systemic Loop
o Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body, returning
deoxygenated blood to the right atrium
Systole
- Contraction of heart muscles Diastole
- Relaxation of heart muscle Sinoatrial Node
- “Pacemaker”
- Controls contractions
- Sends out electrical signals
Arteries
- Thick walls
- Able to withstand pressure of blood pumped by the heart Veins
- Walls with a thinner muscle layer
- Larger lumen
Blood Plasma
- Contains nutrients, hormones, antibodies, and other immune proteins
- Carbon dioxide dissolves in plasma and is removed by the lungs
Red Blood Cells
- Contain hemoglobin
- Transport oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
White Blood Cells
- Leukocytes
o Protect the body against disease
- Lymphocytes
o A subtype of white blood cell found in lymph
Vocab:
- Arteries: blood vessels
that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body
- Capillary: small blood vessels that connect arterioles to venules
- Diastole: the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood
- Hemoglobin: the protein in RBCs that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
- Lymph: clear fluid that moves throughout the lymphatic system to fight disease
- Plasma: the pale yellow component of blood that carries RBCs, WBCs, and platelets throughout the body
- Systole: the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood
- Vein: blood vessels that carry blood to the heart
Khan Academy – The Respiratory System
Intake of Air
- Air basically goes to the same place (back of throat) regardless if taken in through the mouth or the nose
Adam’s Apple
- Called an Adam’s apple because Adam is generally a boy’s name; to remind us that usually men or boys have larger Adam’s apple than girls
- Helps control your voice
- Another name -> Voice box
- Air is passing through this
- Entry into trachea
- Use your Adam’s apple to make your voice higher or lower
The Lungs
- The right lung has three lobes
- The left lung has two lobes
- Left lung has a cardiac notch
o A little spot that gets formed because the heart is peeking out there
- The bronchial tree
o Air goes down the main trunk (trachea)
o Splits up
- Alveoli
o When the air goes into the alveoli, it has a dead end, and then it comes back around, and then you breathe it out
o Before it leaves the alveoli, into the blood will go oxygen
o Oxygen will go into the blood
o Out of the blood will be waste (carbon dioxide)
o Waste gets thrown back into the alveoli
Diaphragm Muscle
- Makes up the “floor”
- ribs make up the “wall”
Photosynthesis
- Light Energy + Water + Carbon Dioxide (Inputs) => Glucose + Oxygen (Outputs)
- Happens during the day
- Glucose ends up in fruits & vegetables that we eat
- Makes an excess of oxygen; so it’s enough for humans and the plant itself
Cellular Respiration
- Glucose + Oxygen (input) => Water + Carbon Dioxide (output) + Chemical Energy (ATP)
- Plants are also capable of doing this all times of the day (just like humans)
Air Breakdown
- Oxygen makes up about 21% of our air
- Carbon Dioxide makes up about less than 1%
- 78% Nitrogen (N2)
Nose Hair
- Filter system
- Make sure the large particles of dirt & dust are picked up
Mucus in the Nose (Snot)
- Small particles stick to it
- Filter system
- Way of cleaning up the air
*MOUTH air is dirtier because it doesn’t have a filter system
*Air in the body warmer and more moist than outside air (colder & dryer) 2 Options the Oxygen Molecule can go
- *Into the Larynx (voicebox); epiglottis closes up and protects larynx
o then into the trachea
o then into the right or left lung
Bronchi is > 1
Bronchus = 1
o Then into the R/L Main (Primary)
Bronchus
o Then to the R/L Lobar (Secondary) Bronchus
o Then to the L/R Segmental (Tertiary) Bronchus
- Into the esophagus (where you want food to go, leads to the stomach)
Upper Respiratory Tract
- Larynx and everything above
Lower Respiratory Tract
- Trachea and everything below
Carina
- The spot where it splits into the left & right main bronchus
- Right side more vertical
- Left side more flat
- Gravity is going to push more things towards the right main bronchus
Conducting Bronchioles
- Branch 4 -20
- Final conducting bronchiole (Terminal Bronchiole)
Respiratory Bronchioles
- Branches 21-
- Attached to alveolar ducts
Alveolar Sac
- Branch off of alveolar ducts
- Made up of Alveoli (plural)
- Alveolus -> singular
- Molecule of oxygen ends up here
- Is now ready for gas exchange
Respiratory Zone
- Respiratory bronchioles on down Average air pressure -> P= 760 mmHg Inhaling & exhaling
Exhalation
- 1.) Volume goes down
- 2.) Pressure goes up (more collisions happening) (760mmHg) “Positive”
- 3.) Air molecules move out
- 4.) Pressure will fall back to 760 mmHg Inhalation
- 1.) Volume increases
- 2.) Pressure decreases (757 mmHg) “negative”
- 3.) Air molecules move in
- 4.) Pressure increases back to 760 mmHg
How Lung Volume Changes
- “costal” refers to the ribs
- Intercostal muscle between ribs
- Intercostal muscles start contracting when the brain decides it wants to take a breath; ribs move out
- When the diaphragm muscle contracts, it goes down & flatten out
o All the above organs then physically move down & out
- Expansion of the lungs -> all the alveoli are expanding (we have about 500 million alveoli); being pulled out & getting larger in size
- Alveoli have a lot of protein around them called Elastin
- Inhaling
o 1. Volume increases
o 1. Muscles contracting (requires chemical energy = ATP)
o 2. Alveoli are stretched open through elastin proteins
- Exhaling
o 1. Volume decreases
o 1. Muscles relax
o 2. Alveoli recoil (driving force for why the volume goes back down); elastic potential energy
Thermoregulation in the lungs
- The air we breathe in goes into our lungs
- Alveoli allows all the cold air you breathed in to equilibrate with the temperature of the blood that’s passing by these capillaries
- Going to breathe out air that’s body temperature
• Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts downward, ribs push out, lungs fill with air
• Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes upward, ribs relax, air pushes out
• Hyperventilation: More CO2 than the body can produce (breathing out more than in)
• Hypoventilation: Breathing at an abnormally slow rate, resulting in an increased amount of carbon dioxide in the blood
ATI Notes – Respiratory System Main Function
- Transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cells and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction
- Uniquely constructed to maximize surface area for the exchange of gases
- Works interdependently with the circulatory system Ventilation
- The process of aerating the lungs
- Occurs as a combination of muscle action & negative pressure Alveoli
- The site of gas exchange
- Bathed in a layer of aqueous surfactant -> keeps the lung from collapsing on itself due to surface tension
Lungs
- Right lung a little larger than the left
- Each lobe is contained within a tough, protective double membrane called the pleura, with pleural fluid in between
- Described as resident in the pleural cavity
- *NOTE: Heart is NOT part of the respiratory system
- Gas exchange in the lungs occurs by diffusion -> passive transport mechanism
- Rate of diffusion
o Directly proportional to the surface area involved & concentration gradient
o Inversely proportional to the distance between the two solutions
- Oxygen in the lungs moves into the BLOOD, carbon dioxide in the blood moves into the LUNGS
- Lungs then exhale carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere
Medulla Oblongata
- Breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels & blood pH
Vocab:
- Alveoli: tiny air sacs in the lungs where exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide take place
- Asthma: A lung disease characterized by inflamed, narrowed airways and difficulty breathing
- Bronchi: the main passageways directly attached to the lungs
- Bronchioles: Small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli
- Cystic Fibrosis: A genetic disorder that affects the lungs and other organs, characterized by difficulty breathing, coughing up sputum, and lung infections
- Perfusion: The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue
- Pleura: a membrane around the lungs & inside the chest cavity
- Surfactant: a fluid secreted by alveoli & found in the lungs
- Tidal volume: the amount of air breathed in a normal inhalation or exhalation
- Trachea: the windpipe, which connects the larynx to the lungs
- Ventilation: the movement of air in & out of the body via inhalation & exhalation
ATI Book Gastrointestinal System (Digestive System)/Alimentary Canal)
Location
- In the abdominal cavity
- Starts at the mouth & ends at the anus Function
- Specialized for breaking down good for absorption & distribution to the rest of the. body.
- Specialized regions & glands perform both mechanical & chemical. (enzymatic) digestion
- Blood vessels absorb the digested nutrients
- Smooth muscle is under parasympathetic nervous system control
Mechanical digestion
- Chewing & grinding in the mouth increases surface area by breaking it down to smaller pieces
Mucus in saliva lubricates food [Show Less]