Rosenhan and Seligman (1989)
Abnormal behavior is seen as vivid and unpredictable, causes observer discomfort and violates moral or ideal standards
... [Show More] because it differs from most other people's behavior and standards. Part of the "Deviation from Social Norms" definition of abnormality.
Szasz (1960)
Another supporter of the "Deviation from Social Norms" definition of abnormality. Argues that abnormality, especially relating to certain mental disorders, is a socially constructed concept. This construction then allows for labeling of psychological patients. Szasz is also a big critic of the classification system utilized in diagnosis of mental disorders, based on the ethical implications associated with labeling.
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Jahoda (1958)
Part of the "deviation from ideal mental health" definition of abnormality. Describes several characteristics that mentally healthy people should possess, such as the ability to introspect, integration and balance of personality, self-actualization, autonomy, ability to cope with stress and see the world as it really is, and environmental mastery. However, even "sane" people do not achieve all of these characteristics.
Maslow
Argues that very few people actually achieve self-actualization.
Heather (1976)
Criticizes the medical model of abnormality. Represents this model's assumption that there is always and underlying biological cause for psychological disorders. Suggests that the basis of defining abnormality is often governed by social and moral considerations rather than biological.
Psychoanalytic Approach to Abnormality
Popularized by Freud. Notion of normality is a balance between id impulses, the conscience of the ego, and the values of the superego. Abnormality is the result of thwarted id impulses, repression of traumatic events, or unresolved unconscious conflicts. The difference between the "normal" and "abnormal" is in degree of expression of abnormal tendencies. Utilizes directive therapy.
Behavioral Approach to Abnormality
Behaviorism centers around the belief that all behavior is resulting from learned causes. Processes of learning include classical conditioning and reinforcement. A notion of normality centers around a "learning history" (i.e. a network of behavioral causes within an individual) that has provided an adequately large selection of adaptive responses (i.e. good/normal behavior). Important behaviorists included Pavlov, Watson, and B. F. Skinner. Utilizes directive therapy.
Cognitive Approach to Abnormality
You are normal if: you're cognitive thought processes are rational and properly functioning and sufficiently used to accurately perceive the world and control behavior. Basically, you're normal if you can think soundly. You ain't right if: you have unrealistic, distorted, or irrational understanding and thoughts about the self, others, or the environment. Also cannot use conscious thought processes to sufficiently dictate actions. Involves semi-directive therapy.
Humanistic Approach to Abnormality
You're normal if: you have a positive self-regard, the ability to self-actualize, healthy interpersonal relationships, and responsibility and control over life. You ain't right if: oh wait, no. Humanists believe that everyone is special and unique and rejects psychological labels, for they view them as "stigmatizing." However, humanists recognize "problems with living" that often result from interpersonal relationships, and undesirable environmental circumstances. Involves non-directive therapy.
Nomothetic
Refers to a debate in psychology. This branch, as opposed to idiographic, involves the studying of similarities between individuals and generalization.
Idiographic
Refers to a debate in psychology. This branch, as opposed to nomothetic, recognizes individual differences more and proposes that psychologists/psychiatrists should treat and/or study people with regards to the subject/patient's own background and personality, isolated from the phenomena observed in others.
Statistical Infrequency
A definition of abnormality that states that a behavior is abnormal if it is statistically infrequent. Imagine a bell curve. This definition is lacking in that there is subjectivity in defining the degree of infrequency for one to be considered "abnormal." Other criticisms are that some disorders are not statistically infrequent, that infrequency does not designate desirability, and that depending on the sample used for statistical comparison, there may be cultural/regional discrepancies.
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Deviation from Social Norms
Social norms can be defined as generally accepted rules governing society. They are established through perception and the formation of social complexes within individuals. Examples include wearing clothes, and not acting "crazy." This definition of abnormality considers one abnormal if they violate these accepted standards. This definition is very subjective. For example, depression may be perceived as normal in certain circumstances.
Failure to Function Adequately
This definition of abnormality is fairly self-explanatory. According to this definition, abnormality results from maladaptive behaviors that may adversely affect the individual.
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
This definition of abnormality involves the inability to meet a set of characteristics (or an adequate portion of them) that have been deemed typical of a "sane" individual. This definition is often seen as too idealistic.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder
The major diagnostic classification system in psychology.
Beck et al. (1962)
Demonstrated the failure and inconsistency of early diagnostic classification systems. Multiple psychologists diagnosed the same 153 patients, and researchers found that agreement was only 54%.
Cooper et al. (1972)
Also represented the weaknesses of early classification systems. NY psychiatrists were twice as likely to diagnose schizophrenia than their London counterparts.
Di Nardo et al. (1993)
Tested the DSM III-R for reliability among anxiety disorders. Found that certain disorders had greater reliability than others. For example, OCD and social phobia were of greater reliability than generalized anxiety disorder.
Rosenhan (1973)
See core studies for more info. Demonstrated the failures of mental hospitals in actively diagnosing and assessing the state of patients.
Temerline (1970)
Demonstrated biases in psychological diagnoses. Found that clinically trained psychiatrists and clinical psychologists could be influenced in their diagnosis by hearing the opinion of a respected authority.
Scheff (1966)
Criticizes the classification system. Suggests that labeling people as "abnormal" helps society overcome its anxiety and establish clear norms of reality and appropriate behavior.
Goffman
Describes the adverse effects of institutionalization. Argues that the identity of the patient is gradually lost to the institution, and that patients may internalize their role of "mentally ill patient," which could worsen their disorder rather than improving it.
Doherty (1975)
Points out that those who reject the "mental illness" label tend to improve more quickly than those who accept it. A counterexample to this is alcoholism.
Gove (1970, 1990)
Found that the stigmatizing effects of labeling are short-lived
Major and Crocker (1993)
Found that the effect of labeling on a person's self-esteem is difficult to predict.
Langer and Abelson (1974)
Showed that prejudice does indeed exist in society with regards to people diagnosed with a mental illness.
Disorganized Schizophrenia
A subtype of schizophrenia. Symptoms: incoherent thoughts and speech (crazy talk), bizarre delusions and hallucinations (hearing voices), and inappropriate emotions and behaviors.
Catatonic Schizophrenia
A subtype of schizophrenia. Involves switching from states of catatonic stupor (keeping the same position for long periods of time) and negativism (refusing all instructions for seemingly no reason), and states of catatonic excitement (prolonged, frenzied, even violent behavior).
Paranoid Schizophrenia
A subtype of schizophrenia. Involves organized and complex delusions (often of persecution), mostly auditory hallucinations (hearing voices), and relatively few other symptoms.
Residual Schizophrenia
A subtype of schizophrenia. Involves the gradual development of many minor problems, e.g. unusual behavior, social withdrawal, emotional blunting (lack of emotion), and apathy.
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
A subtype of schizophrenia. Patients with this diagnosis do not fit into the any of the other subtypes of schizophrenia. Therefore, there is much variation between individuals with this diagnosis. This makes standardized study and treatment relatively impossible for individuals with this subtype.
Gottesman (1991)
Provided data in support of a genetic cause of schizophrenia. Showed that identical twins (with the same DNA) have higher concordance rates (both twins have the disorder) for schizophrenia than dizygotic/fraternal twins.
Kety et al. (1975)
Also provided support for genetic causes of schizophrenia. When adopted subjects' environments are matched, rates of schizophrenia in adopted children with biological parents being schizophrenia are higher than rates in adopted children with non-schizophrenic biological parents.
Dopamine Hypothesis
A possible explanation for the causes of schizophrenia. Stated that overactivity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the synapses (regions between neurons) of the brain caused positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
Positive Symptoms
A type of symptom where a behavior or thought is present that should not be there (e.g. hearing voices, disorganized speech).
Negative Symptoms
A type of symptom that are due to the absence of a behavior that should be present (e.g. a catatonic state).
Rossum (1966)
Provided support for the notion that hyperactivity of dopamine transmission was responsible for schizophrenia.
Creese et al. (1976) and Seeman and Lee (1975)
Supported the dopamine hypothesis. Showed correlation between clinical doses of antipsychotic drugs and their potency to block dopamine receptors.
Psychoanalytic Theory of Schizophrenia
Freud proposed this psychological cause of schizophrenia. He suggests that an ego is not developed in schizophrenics and therefore, there is no facilitator for learning through the testing of reality. Symptoms of schizophrenia are representative of the nature of the id and its impulses. Freud believed that schizophrenia was untreatable through psychoanalysis because the patient has no attachment to the outside world.
Existential Theory of Schizophrenia
A possible cause for schizophrenia, argued by Laing, that proposes that schizophrenia is a state of withdrawal in response to the pressures/problems of the world. Schizophrenia is a social and interpersonal experience. Proponents of this theory sometimes see schizophrenia as potentially beneficial.
Labelling Theory of Schizophrenia
A theory about the causes of schizophrenia, adamantly supported by Scheff and Szasz. This theory states that schizophrenia is a social role that is internalized and molded into the symptoms that psychiatrists perceive. Scheff (1966) supports this notion and states the prevalence of self-fulfilling prophecies with schizophrenia diagnoses. Szasz adopts a more radical version of this theory, for he states that schizophrenia is a societal myth.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Type of psychotherapeutic treatment that helps patients understand the thoughts and feelings that influence behaviors. This is commonly used to treat a wide range of disorders including phobias, addictions, depression and anxiety. Developed through a synthesis of behavioral therapy (Thorndike) and cognitive therapy (Beck and Ellis).
Cognitive Theory of Schizophrenia
A complex explanation for the causes of schizophrenia. Centers around mental and perceptual defects that are assumed as the causes of symptoms such as thought-insertion and auditory hallucinations (hearing voices). These defects represent a failure to monitor one's own cognitive process, and a failure of the brain to integrate sensory information. The defects then lead to undesirable life experiences which compound the symptoms of the disorder.
Frith (1979)
Provided support for the cognitive theory of schizophrenia. Proposed that impairment of an "attentional filter mechanism" (a mental device for processing sensory information) could cause the thought-disturbance (crazy thinking) of schizophrenia. Other studies have supported the fact that schizophrenics possess attentional deficits.
Fromm Reichmann
A psychoanalyst who proposed in her 1950 book that schizophrenia is the result of faulty interpersonal relationships in the families of schizophrenics. She also proposed the idea of the "schizophrenogenic mother" (the psychoanalytic idea that schizophrenia was caused directly by the influence of the mother)
Bateson
Proposed that a cause of schizophrenia is the "double bind" communication between schizophrenic children and their parents.
Double Bind Communication
An idea first popularized by Gregory Bateson in the 1950s. It is an emotionally distressing dilemma in communication in which an individual (or group) receives two or more conflicting messages, in which one message negates the other. This creates a situation in which a successful response to one message results in a failed response to the other (and vice versa), so that the person will be automatically wrong regardless of response. For example, if your employer tells you to do a job, but doesn't allow enough time for you to do it, and you are in danger of losing your job if you question the situation, you are experiencing an example of this.
Lidz and Fleck (1965)
Proposed a familial explanation for the causes of schizophrenia. Their ideas centered around the prevalence of what they deemed marital skew (the dominance of one parent over the other) and marital schism (differing ideologies between parents that result in differing loyalties among the children). Much of their ideas on schizophrenia are now rejected.
Unipolar Depression
A mood disorder. One of the most common psychopathologies. Can exhibit 4 types of symptoms: cognitive, emotional, motivational, and somatic. Emotional symptoms include intense feelings of sadness or guilt along with lack of pleasure. Motivational symptoms include passivity and difficulty in making decisions. Cognitive symptoms: pessimism, faulty attribution of blame, and low self esteem. Somatic symptoms: loss of energy, disturbance of appetite, weight, and sleep. Around a 5% lifetime risk of developing the disorder.
Bipolar (Manic) Depression
A mood disorder. Involves the symptoms of depression followed by periods of mania (a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at least a week). Around a 1% lifetime risk for developing this disorder.
Dysthymia
A mood disorder. Chronic mild depression is experienced for 2 years or greater, where symptoms of mild depression are experienced (1) for most of the day, (2) on more days than not, and (3) without a break of more than 2 months in a 2-year period.
Cyclothymia
The bipolar equivalent of dysthymia.
Mania
A disorder that involves periods of mania without corresponding periods of depression. The symptoms must last at least a week and must be severe enough to interfere with normal functioning.
Seasonal Affective Disorder
A classification given to someone that suffers a mood disorder that systematically varies with seasonal changes.
Katz and McGuffin (1993)
Support a genetic explanation for mood disorders, specifically unipolar and bipolar depression. Found 52% concordance in identical twins for unipolar depression, and 80% concordance in identical twins for bipolar depression.
Neurochemical Theory of Depression
A popular theory for the explanation of depression is the lack of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin. These are involved in emotional areas of the brain. The theory is evidenced by effectiveness of anti-depressant drugs (which increase their activity) and the drug reserpine, which causes depression.
Seligman and Maier (1967)
Supported the learning theory of mood disorders. Found that dogs repeatedly subjected to unavoidable punishment would no longer initiate any action to avoid electric shock when it was made possible to do so. Stressed the prevalence of learned helplessness in the cycle of depression.
Seligman's Cognitive Theory of Depression
An explanation of depression. Suggests that people become depressed when they achieve learned helplessness. States that learned helplessness makes depressives see causes as internal, situations as stable, and failure as global.
Beck's Cognitive Theory of Depression
An explanation of depression. Proposed a cognitive triad of negative thoughts (about the self, present experience, and the future). Examines the patient's errors of logic.
Freudian Theory of Depression
An explanation of depression. States that patients turn their inherent aggressive drive and anger unconsciously upon themselves, and are therefore punishing themselves.
Checkley (1992)
Proposed an explanation for depression that states that stress causes the production of adrenal steroid hormones, such as cortisol, which regulate the effect of genetic influences on depression.
Weiss and Simson (1985)
Proposed an explanation for depression. Found that rats exhibiting learned helplessness showed decreases in production of norepinephrine.
Phobia
An irrational fear, sometimes referred to as abnormal avoidance.
Agoraphobia
Fear of crowds and open spaces. Most common phobia and most prevalent among women in early adulthood. Shown to have a genetic transmission.https://docmerit.com/upload-step [Show Less]