Define the following: isotope, valence shell, covalent bond, ionic bond
Isotope- one of several atomic forms of an element, each with the same # of proton... [Show More] s, but different number of neutrons
Valence shell- the outermost energy shell of an atom, containing valence electrons involved in chemical reactions
Covalent bond- bond where the electrons are shared
Ionic bonds- a chemical bond resulting from the attractions between oppositely charged ions
Hydrogen bonds result in.... pH is...
Hydrogen bonds result in a weak, polar, and covalent bond between a H+ and a negative ion.
pH is the measure of hydrogen ion concentration
How many covalent bonds can carbon form?
4 bonds
Hydrogen bonds form between...
a H+ and a negative ion
pH is a measure of.... What is a buffer?
pH is a measure of ion concentration
A buffer minimizes the changes in a solution when acids and bases are added
What are the differences between catabolic and anabolic reactions?
Catabolic reactions break down complex molecules and anabolic reactions build them up.
What is an isomer? Define structural, geometric, and stereoisomers?
An isomer is when different compounds the same molecular formula but different structure. A structural isomer is an isomer that has different covalent arrangements of their atoms; geometric isomers have the same covalent bonds but differ in spacial arrangment; enatimors mirror images of each other
Name the following functional groups: -OH -C=O -COOH -NH2 -SH -OPO3
Hydroxyl; carbonyl; carboxyl; amino; sulfhydryl; phosphate
What is the general formula for a monosaccharide?
What is the function of monosaccharides?
What are polysaccharides?
What are the differences between glycogen, starch, cellulose, and chitin?
C1H2O1
energy storage and structural support
Chain of monosaccarides
Starch (plants) and glycogen (animals) store energy in carbohydrate form, whereas cellulose (plant wall) and chitin (exoskeleton) provide structural support.
What are the structural components of fats, phospholipids, steroids?
Fats store....
Phospholipids form....
Steroids may function as....
Made up of a glyceral moleucule and three fatty acids which include hydrocarbon chains that are nonpolar.
Fats store energy and store twice as many calories/gram as carbohydrates
Phospholipids form the bilayer of cell membranes
Steroids function as a means to liquify the cell membrane to increase permeability and can act as a hormone
Proteins are polymers of...... joined by....
amino acids.......peptide bonds
Describe primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins
primary the linkage of amino acids; secondary 3D as a result of hydrogen bonding and can form an alpha helix (slinky) or a beta pleated sheet (accordian); tertiary result in a complext globural shape, due to interactions between R groups (hydrophobic interactions, vans der Waals interactions, hydrogen bonds, and disulphide bonds); quaternary results from two or more primary structures to form a quaternary structure
The three parts of a nucleotide are..... A and G are.....; C and T are.....
Ribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base.
A+G- Purines (bigger) C+T- pyrimidines (smaller)
Energy is defined as.... What is entropy?
Energy is the capacity to cause change. Entropy is disorder
List 8 organelles found in the cell and their functions
Mitochondria- the site of cellular respiration,
a metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP
Chloroplast- found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis
Nucleus- contains most of the cell's genes
and is usually the most conspicuous organelle
Endoplasmic Recticulum- accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many. The Smooth ER Synthesizes lipids, Metabolizes carbohydrates, Detoxifies drugs and poisons, and Stores calcium ions. The Rough ER - Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates), Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes, and Is a membrane factory for the cell
eukaryotic cells
Golgi Apparatus- consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae. It Modifies products of the ER, Manufactures certain macromolecules, and Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
Plasma membrane- selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell
Lysosome- a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest
macromolecules
Vacuole- Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis. Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells. Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water
What are the differences between diffusion and active transport?
Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of particles across the membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Active transport is the movement of particles from either low to high or high to low, using the help of transport molecules. IT REQUIRES ENERGY
The three steps in respiration are....
Glycolysis starts with.... and produces....
Krebs cycle starts with... and produces....
Where do the following occur:
glycolysis
Krebs cycle
ETC
Glycolysis (cytosol), Krebs cycle (in mitochondrial fluid), Electron Transport Chain (mitochondria fold membrane)
Glucose starts with 2 ATP and 1 glucose and produces 2 pyruvate and a net production of 2 ATP
What are the two major parts of photosynthesis? Where does each part occur?
What enters the light reactions? What is produced?
What enters the Calvin cycle? What is produced?
Light reactions (lumen) and dark reactions (Calvin Cycle (me).
List the phases of mitosis
List the parts of the cell cycle
The phases of mitosis: Interphase (G0, G1, S, G2) and mitosis (prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis)
Define hypoosmotic, hyperosmotic, and isomotic
1. Has a lower concentration of solutes than its surrounding enviorment
2. Has a higher concentration of solutes than its surrounding enviroment
3. Has equal concentration
What is chemiosmosis?
What is photophosphorylation?
The movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient
The use of light energy from photosynthesis to ultimately provide the energy to convert ADP to ATP, thus replenishing the universal energy currency in living things.
What is the difference between meiosis I and meisosis II
Meiosis I includes crossing over and independent assortment, where as II does not. Meiosis I is the transition from a 4n to a 2n, II is a transition from a 2n to an n.
What are the dinfferences between aneuploidy, polyploidy, and structural alterations in chromosomes? What is the difference between a linked and unlinked gene?
Aneuploidy is when there are extra or missing copies of chromosomes. Polyploidy is when you have more than two sets of chromosomes per nucleus. Linked genes are genes that are located on the same chromosome and, as a result, travel together during inheritance and do not reassort in the individual, whereas unlinked genes are not connected and reassort independently meaning they are inherited separately.
List some differences between viruses and bacteria
Bacteria are actually living and are able to produce a cell wall, genetic information, and the other necessary elements to live. Viruses, need a host cell, to "live." When the "live" they really just express their DNA in the host cell.
List the tools and techniques of DNA technology
List some applications of DNA technology
DNA technology employs the tools of restriction enzymes to cut up DNA and DNA ligase to join the fragments back together. Some types of DNA technology are gel electrophoresis, which separates DNA fragments according to their weight in response to electrict poles,; restriction fragment length polymorphisms, which are useful in DNA fingerprinting, as polymorphs account for slight differences in DNA sequences; and polymerase chain reaction, which uses synthetic primers that initiate replication at specific nucleotide sequences proliferating the amount of DNA available. These technologies can be used in criminal investigations, determining paternity, etc.
Describe the three major types of mutations
Describe some causes of mutations
Substitution- when one nucleotide is substituted for another.
Deletion- takes out nucleotide and then everything shifts
Insertion- puts an additional one in
Mutations- are caused by incorrect checking of the DNA by the DNA polymerase. Its rate is increased by radatiation and chemicals called mutagens.
What are the differences between the lytic and lysogenic cycle?
Lytic cyle is when the virus goes in the host and uses the enzymes to replicate its DNA and transcribe it into the host cells DNA, then the host erupts and the virus is spread
Lysogenic cycle- Is when the DNA is replicated by the bacteria, but doesn't explode
Define the following: operon, promoter, structural gene, repressor, inducer, activator
Operon- group of genes that all coordinate to produce something.
Promoter- Where the RNA polymerase latches on to begin transcription
Structural gene- codes for the protein
Repressor- latches onto the promoter to repress gene expression
Inducer/Activator- latches onto the promotor to induce and activate gene expression
List the five conditions necessary for Hardy-Weinburg equilibrium. Give HW formula and state what each term in the equation stands for
No mutations, no gene flow,
No genetic drift, Random Mating, Large Population
p^2+2pq+q^2=1 p+q=1
Describe some prezygotic and postzygotic barriers to the ability to interbreed. What is allopatric speciation? What is sympatric speciation?
Some prezygotic factors include Habitat Isolation (different habitats, lang and water snakes), Temporal Isolation (different times, skunk mates in two different seasons), Behavioral Isolation (courtship rituals, blue-footed boobies), Mechanical Isolation (morpholigical differences, snail genetalia not aligned), and Gametic Isolation.
Postzygotic factors include Reduced Hybrid Viability (dont fully develop), Reduced Hybrid Fertility (offspring are sterile), and Hybrid Breakdown (after the F1 gen, they become sterile).
Allopatric speciation is speciation resulting from some type of isolation
Sympatric speciation results when the chromosome number becomes different, leading to a new species.
What are the differences between microevolution and macroevolution?
Genetic drift? Gene flow? Selection?
Microevolution is evolution in on a population over several generations, Macroevolution is evolution on a speciation levle.
Genetic Drift- Is varying allele frequencies within a population
Gene Flot- the migration and immigration of species in and out of a population which results in greater allele variation
Natural Selection- selection that benefits a certain trait
List and describe the 5 kingdoms of life
Protista
Bacteria
Archae
Animal
Plant
define the following: phototroph, chemotroph, autotroph, and heterotroph
phototroph- uses light for energy
Chemotroph- uses inorganic substances for energy
Autotroph- synthesizes using complex organic molecules
heterotroph- an organism that obtains energy from other organisms
The three main parts of a plant are...
The three basic tissue types in a plant are....
The differences between primary and secondary growth are....
The roots, stem, and leaves. Vascular, Dermal, and Ground. Primary growth is the elongation of the cell whereas Secondary growth is when the sprouts shoot out to collect nutrients.
Compare and contrast transpiration and translocation. What is the difference between xylem and phloem?
Tranpspiration is the loss of water vapor from the surgace of a plant through the stomata. Translocation is the channeling of the sugar through the phloem.
What is photoperiodism? How are short day plans and long day plants different?
Photoperiodism is the physiological response due to daylight. Short day plants flower later in the summer and early fall when the days are shorter whereas long day plants blosom in the early summer when days are getting longer
The 4 major tissue types in animals are...
Epithelial, Nervous, Muscle, and Connective tissue
What are the two main types of immune system defenses in animals?
What is the inflammatory response?
What is the difference between cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity?
The two main types of immune system defense are humoral and cell-mediated responses.
The inflammatory response is when your vessels vesodialate to let more blood through, which leads to more white blood cells, which results in inflammation
Cell-mediated immunity uses T-cells and takes down any non-you cell. Humoral immunity responds to pathogens in the blood or lymph
What are some of the functions of the vertebrate kidney? What is the difference between an endotherm and an ectotherm?
The vertebrate kidney filters the blood in the animal. It contains nephorns which filter out the waste and keep the nutrients [Show Less]
