CHEM219 / CHEM 219 Module 2: (Latest Update
2026 / 2027) Principles of Organic Chemistry
with Lab | Questions & Answers | Grade A | 100%
Correct – Po
...
rtage Learning
2026 / 2027 Academic Year
Q: Two types of reactions for Alkanes
Answer
Combustion (oxidation) and Radical Halogenation (substitution)
Q: What does Combustion reaction produce?
Answer
CO2 and H2O
Q: Is Combustion Endothermic or Exothermic?
Answer
Exothermic
Q: What is exothermic?
Answer
Heat (energy) is released
Q: The greater the number of carbons in an alkane, the _______ the amount of heat released in the
combustion reaction
Answer
GREATER
Q: Is the enthalpy (delta H) positive or negative in a combustion reaction? Why?
Answer
Negative because heat is being released
Q: Why is a combustion reaction also called Oxidation?
Answer
Carbon is combining with oxygen
Q: What occurs during a radical halogenation reaction?
Answer
Halogen atoms replace hydrogen atoms on an alkane molecule
Q: Why is Radical Halogenation considered a Substitution reaction?
Answer
Because halogen atoms substitute hydrogen atoms on the alkane
Q: What is the catalyst for Radical Halogenation?
Answer
Heat or UV
Answer
More than 1 H atom is replaced by a halogen
Q: Halogen radicals in Radical Halogenation
Answer
Species with a single unpaired electrons that attack the alkane substrate to pull off hydrogen atoms and
substitute themselves in their place.
Q: Polyhalogenated products
Q: Name the 5 "Addition" reactions in alkenes/alkynes
Answer
Addition reaction
Halogenation
Hydration
Addition of Acids to Alkenes
Addition of Hydrogen to Alkenes
Q: Name the two oxidation reactions in alkenes/alkynes
Answer
Oxidation with Potassium Permanganate
Ozonolysis
Q: Why are addition reactions in alkenes thought of as combunations?
Answer
Two different molecules join to form a single new compound
Q: What happens to the pi bond of the alkene in addition reactions?
Answer
It is broken
Q: What happens to the sigma bond of the reagent in alkene addition reactions?
Answer
It is broken
Q: What does the C atom in addition reactions gain?
Answer
2 new sigma bonds
Q: How does the geometry of the alkene in addition change?
Answer
Goes from Trigonal planar to tetrahedral
Q: Is the product of alkene addition saturated or unsaturated? Why?
Answer
Saturated because no new bonds can be made.
Q: Halogenation product for alkenes
Answer
Alkyl Dihalide
Q: Why do alkenes readily add halogens?
Answer
Because it is energetically favorable to do so (due to enthalpy)
Q: What happens during a Br Qualitative Test for Alkenes?
Answer
Br is typically red/brown in color, but when it bonds with alkene, it is dibromoalkane and it is colorless.
If you drop Br into a random substance, you will know it is alkene if the color changes to colorless.
Q: What happens in the Hydration of Alkenes?
Answer
Alkenes add a water molecule across the double bond in the presence of an acid catalyst.
Q: What is the product of the hydration of an alkene?
Answer
Alcohol (-OH)
Q: Why is an acid catalyst needed in the hydration of alkene?
Answer
Neutral water molecules are not reactive enough to start a reaction on their own
Q: What does H and A stand for with H-A?
Answer
H = acidic proton
A = remainder of the acid
What is the qualitative testing in Acid Addition?
Q: What is the product of Hydrogenation in Alkenes?
Answer
Alkane
Q: What happens during Hydrogenation of an Alkene?
Answer
The unsaturation is removed
Q: Where does Hydrogenation of an alkene occur?
Answer
On metal surface
Q: Does Hydrogenation of alkenes produce mainly cis or trans stereoisomers?
Answer
Cis!
Q: What is the product in Oxidation w/ KMnO4?
Answer
Glycol
Q: What setting is Oxidation w/ KMnO4 performed under?
Answer
Basic conditions and relatively cool temps
Q: Do Alkenes react readily with aqueous solutions of KMnO4?
Answer
Yes
Q: What is the qualitative test undergone through Oxidation w/ KMnO4?
Answer
The royal color of the permanganate solution disappears and a brown precipitate of MnO2 appears.
This is to distinguish alkenes from alkanes.
Q: What is the product of Ozonolysis?
Answer
Carbonyl groups
Q: What occurs during Ozonolysis?
Answer
Alkene reacts with O3 (Ozone)
Q: What is O3's relationship to Oxygen? Please elaborate on the term used
Answer
Allotrope - Different physical form that an element can exist
What is the catalyst in Ozonolysis?
Answer
Zinc Metal and aqueous acid
What happens to the C=C in Ozonolysis?
Answer
It is cleaved
What is the qualitative testing of Ozonolysis?
Answer
Looking at what atoms or groups are attached to in the carbonyl groups to see where in a chain the
double bond is present.
This allows for reconstruction of the original alkene.
Why do alkenes readily react with oxidizing reagents?
Answer
High electron density of the double bond
What happens in an oxidation reaction of alkenes?
Answer
The oxidizing agents attack the pi-electrons of the double bond
Are aromatic rings stable or unstable? What does this mean?
Answer
Aromatic rings are stable, which means they have a lack of reactivity
What does it mean that aromatic rings are conjugated?
Answer
Separated by only 1 C-C sigma bond.
How are aromatic rings thought of in regards to their conjugated bonds?
Answer
INFINITE LOOP
Repeating pattern of pi - sigma - pi
Why do aromatic rings not get involved with reactions?
Answer
The need for preservation of the pattern.
What does EAS stand for?
Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
What is an electrophile?
Electron-deficient chemical species that seeks electrons
What happens during EAS reactions?
Electrophile attacks the ring, bonds to carbon to temporarily disrupt the aromaticity.
The aromaticity is then restored by chemical species that removes a H atom and donates the electrons
from the C-H bone back to the ring restoring the aromaticity.
list prefixes for first 10 carbons in order
meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, dec
hydrocarbon
compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen
parent chain
longest continuous chain of carbon atoms
alkane (with formula)
hydrocarbon containing only single bonds between carbons, CnH2n+2
substituent
heteroatom or group of atoms that are attached to the parent chain
numerical prefixes for # of identical substituent groups (2-10 in order)
di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca
rules for naming alkanes
1. longest continues chain is parent chain
2. number parent chain starting with the end closest to the first branch
3. name using IUPAC rules for substituents
IUPAC systematic name order for alkanes
locant-(prefix)SubstituentParent
in numbering parent chains, if there are two equally long chains...
select the chain with the most branches coming off
in numbering parent chains, if the first branch point if the same distance from either end of the parent
chain...
choose the numbering that gives the lower numbers to the most substituents
in numbering parent chains, if there are only 2 substituents and both are equidistant from opposite
ends of the parens chain...
choose the numbering direction so the substituent with the higher alphabetical priority gets the lower
locant number
solubility and density properties of alkanes
NOT soluble in water, low density (< 1g/ml) so floats on top of water
melting and boiling points properties of alkanes
LOW MPs and BPs due to weak attractive forces between molecules
how does branching affect MPs and BPs
branching lowers surface area of the molecule, which in turn lowers VDWFs and thus lowering BPs and
MPs
conformers
different shapes of molecules derived from rotations of single bonds
staggered conformation
H atoms do not overlap in line of sight (more stable)
eclipsed conformation
heteroatoms overlap with one another (less stable)
rotamers
conformers that can be swapped with a simple rotation of the C-C bond
what conformation do molecules prefer?
molecules adapt conformations that minimize repulsion, so likely staggered (zigzag formation)
cycloalkane
alkane whose carbon skeleton is in a ring
how to name cycloalkanes
add prefix "cyclo" to the parent chain portion of the name
when naming cycloalkanes, if ONE substituent is present...
NO locant numbers are added and the substituent name is added in front of the parent name
(methylcyclobutane)
when naming cycloalkanes, if more than one substituent is present...
carbons on the parent ring are numbered, starting with the carbon with the substituent group with the
highest alphabetical priority and continuing in the direction that gives the other substituents the lowest
locant numbers (1-ethyl-2-methylcyclohexane)
angle strain
occurs when the actual bond angle in the ring is not what VESPR predicts for the atom's electron
geometry angle
what is the most stable number of carbons in a chain? Why?
6, because C6 has bond angles that almost match the VESPR prediction of a tetrahedral bond angle
torsional strain
strain from eclipsed conformations, occurs when a ring is planar and has no choice but to have all
carbons on the same plane
non-planar conformations
slight rotations in C-C bonds to move the carbons from all being on the same plane
puckered conformation
2 carbons fold out from the other 2 in a C4
envelope conformation
one carbon folds up in C5
chair conformation
one carbon tilts up and one on the other end of the ring tiltds down in C6
stereoisomerism
different compounds with the same connectivity but different positioning of atoms or substituent
groups in 3D space
reactivity properties of alkanes
typically inert, do not react with most acids, bases, or oxidizing/reducing agents
combustion of alkanes properties
exothermic, results in CO2 and H2O, the more carbon in the alkane, the more heat is released
heterocyclic
molecules where at least 1 atom in a ring is NOT carbon (mostly O, N and S)
radical halogenation
reaction using heat or UV light where a halogen atom replaces a hydrogen atom in an alkane molecule
R-H + X-X --> R-X + H-X
polyhalogenated products
occur when more than one H atom is replaced by a halogen due to excess of the halogen, causing a
mixture of all the different possible halogen substituted products
list two main types of reactions in ALKANES
combustion and substitution (radical halogenation)
what causes unsaturation vs saturation
unsaturation occurs when the number of H per C is lower than for saturated carbons, and occurs in
double bonds as the double bond on the C takes away the possibility of H atoms being able to bond
carbocyclic
molecules with at least 1 ring of all C
functional group
group of heteroatoms in a specific pattern attached to an organic molecule that leads to certain
reactivity and physical properties
electrophilic aromatic substitution
substitution where an electrophile (chem substance seeking electrons) replaces an H. instead of
addition the (+) electrophile removes an H resulting in the E attached to the ring and an A-H leftover
aliphatic hydrocarbons
alkanes, alkenes, alkynes
aromatic hydrocarbons -arenes, such as benzenes
lack of reactivity
very stable
conjugation
double bond separated by 1 sigma bond
when 3 or more substituents are present on a benzene
the locant numbers are used to describe the position (1,2,4-trimethylbenzene)
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
more than one benzene ring fused together with each ring sharing 2 or more of the same C atoms
in naming monosubstituted benzenes
name of substituent group is added to parent name "benzene"
(clorobenzene)
when 2 substituents are present on a benzene
use prefixes to describe location of substituents in relation to one another (o-dichlorobenzene)
prefixes for locating 2 substituents on a benzne
(o) ortho = 1 carbon away
(m) meta = 2 carbon away
(p) para = 3 carbon away
place letter instead of locant number
benzene
C6H6 ring with alternating double bonds
what reaction is used to pinpoint specific location of double bond? How?
ozonolysis, O3 acts like scissors and breaks the double bond apart creating two carbonyl compounds
attached to the 2 parts of the molecule
how is bromine used in alkene/alkyne reactions
if the orange/brown color of the bromine disappears when added to a compound the molecule is an
alkene/alkyne
typical reaction type for alkenes and alkynes
addition reaction where atoms or groups of atoms are added to each carbon in the multiple bond,
causing the bond to become single or double
two major classes of hydrocarbons
aliphatic (alkane, alkene, alkyne) and aromatic (benzene)
how does surface area impact MPs and BPs
greater surface area means more VDWFs which leads to higher MPs and BPs
how to determine if cis/trans isomerism is possible around a double bond
if the substituent comes off on the same side it is cis, if on the other side it is trans, if the sides look
different it is not possible
what are the two qualitative reactions for the presence of an alkene
Bromine addition (if color disappears it IS an alkene) AND oxidation with KMnO4 (if purple color
disappears and leaves brown precipitate it IS an alkene)
why do aromatic rings undergo substitution and NOT addition?
the loop of conjugation (pi-sigma-pi) causes great stability, substitution occurs rather than addition
because addition would break the stability of the ring
list IUPAC steps for naming alkenes/alkynes
1. select parent chain that contains both carbons in multiple bond
2. number locants so the multiple bond has the lower numbers (if equidistant number with 1 closer to
1st branch)
3. indicate multiple bond using lower locant number (2-hexene NOT 3-hexene)
in naming alkenes/alkynes if more than one pi bond is present...
number the patent chain from the end nearest to the first pi bond
is a double C bond and triple C bond are present AND equidistant from the ends number locants...
so that the double bond gets the lower numbers
how to name cyclic alkenes/alkynes without substituents
no locant numbers needed (cyclohexane)
how to number cyclic alkenes/alkynes with substituents
number so the multiple bond contains number 1-2 and the substituents get the lowest numbers
CHEM219 / CHEM 219 Module 1: (Latest Update
2026 / 2027) Principles of Organic Chemistry
with Lab | Questions & Answers | Grade A | 100%
Correct – Po
...
rtage Learning
2026 / 2027 Academic Year
Q: On a piece of scratch paper, write out the Lewis Dot Diagram for each of the indicated
elements and determine the following for each:
Answer
a) The number of Lone Pairs the atom possesses in its valence shell.b) The number of
Unpaired Electrons the atom possesses in its valence shell.c) The number of bonds the
atom will form.
Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen - a) 2 b) 2 c) 2
Carbon - a) 0 b) 4 c) 4
Hydrogen- a) 0 b) 1 c) 1
Nitrogen - a) 1 b) 3 c) 3
Q: Classify the bonding between the given pairs of atoms as ionic, covalent, or polar
covalent. Use the table of electronegativities shown below to help with the classification.
a. Br and Br
b. K and Cl
c. P and Cl
d. C and O
e. Na and Br
Answer
a. Br-Br: Electronegativity difference () = 0 = COVALENT (or pure covalent)
b. K-Cl: () = 2.2 = IONIC
c. P-Cl: ()= 0.9 = POLAR COVALENT
d. C-O: ()= 1.0 = POLAR COVALENT
e. Na-Br: () = 1.8 = POLAR COVALENT
Q: Define the term constitutional isomer.
Answer
Two (or more) different chemical compounds with the same molecular formula but
different connectivity between the atoms in their structural formulae.
Q: Explain (using specific evidence) what makes the following two compounds
constitutional isomers of one another:
Answer
Both compounds have a MF of C3H6O - same MF.
Compound "a" has a 3-carbon chain with a C=O in the middle. No H atom connected to C of
C=O.
Compound "b" has a 3-carbon chain with a C=O at the end. There is an H attached to the C
of the C=O.
Q: What is the relationship between the compounds shown? Are they the same
compound, constitutional isomers, or two different compounds that are not related to one
another? Explain.
Answer
Different compounds that are not related. They have different MF - (a) C3H8O, (b) C3H6O.
Q: Identify each of the following carbon skeletons as linear (continuous), branched, or
cyclic.
Answer
a) Branched
b) Linear (continuous)
c) Cyclic
Q: On a piece of scratch paper, write out structural formulae for all of the constitutional
isomers possible for the MF C3H6F2. How many isomers are possible for this formula?
Answer
4
Q: Characterize each of the following structural formula representations as either a dash,
condensed, super-condensed, or bond-line formula:
Answer
a) Super-Condensed
b) Condensed
c) Bond-line
d) Dash
Q: Write the molecular formula for each of the compounds whose bond-line formulae are
given below.
Answer
a) C5H10
b) C3H8O
c) C4H10O
Q: Which bond-line formula shown below represents a constitutional isomer of
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3?
Answer
(b)
Q: Which of the following structures does NOT have the molecular formula C6H14?
Answer
(d)
Q: The structural formula:
Has what molecular formula?
Answer
(c) C7H14
Q: The compound carbon monoxide has the following structural formula:
What is the formal charge on the carbon and the oxygen? Show your calculation. What is
the overall charge on the molecule?
Answer
Carbon = 4-(2+3) = -1
Oxygen = 6-(2+3) = +1
Overall = FC Carbon + FC Oxygen = [-1 + (+1)] = 0
Q: For the following example of resonance:
Answer
Which structure (a or b) represents a "major" resonance contributor to the hybrid? Briefly
explain why.
Structure "a" is a major contributor. All of the atoms have complete valences and in
addition, all of the atoms have a formal charge of zero (All of the atoms are meeting their
LDD bonding pattern).
Q: Describe how individual resonance structures impact the true structure of a molecule
or polyatomic ion.
Answer
Each contributing individual resonance structure contributes characteristics to the overall
hybrid structure of the compound. The hybrid "averages" bond lengths and formal charges
by delocalizing them among atoms that share them in each contributing individual
resonance structure.
Q: On a piece of scrap paper, draw the resonance structure "b" that would result from
redistributing the electrons as shown on structure "a" in the diagram below:
For your structure "b", complete the table with the information requested:
Answer
Oxygen: 1 lone pair, 1 single bond, 1 double bond, +1 formal charge.
Carbon (1): 0 lone pair, 2 single bond, 1 double bond, 0 formal charge.
Carbon (II): 1 lone pair, 3 single bond, 0 double bond, -1 formal charge.
Q: Describe the shapes associated with the atomic orbitals associated with the main
elements of organic chemistry.
Answer
S orbitals are spherical (single lobe), while P orbitals are dumbbell-shaped (two lobes).
End-on overlap of atomic orbitals leads to the formation of sigma (single) covalent bonds.
Sideways overlap of P orbitals leads to the formation of pi (multiple) covalent bonds.
Q: Explain how bonds are formed between atoms from the perspective of atomic orbital
theory.
Answer
Atoms form bonds by overlapping individual atomic orbitals from each atom to produce
molecular (bonding) orbitals.
Q: Explain the two types of atomic orbital overlap that contribute to bond formation in
organic molecules.
Answer
Q: Using the VSEPR method, predict the molecular geometry (shape and bond angle)
around the indicated atoms for the following structure:
a) C(I)
b) C(II)
c) N
d) S
Answer
a) C(I) = 4 bond pairs = TETRAHEDRAL, 109.5°
b) C(II) = 3 bond pairs = TRIGONAL PLANAR, 120°
c) N = 3 bond pairs/1 lone pair = TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL, 107°
d) S = 2 bond pairs/2 lone pairs = ANGULAR/BENT, 105°
Q: Catenation
Answer
The process or preference of an element to link/bond with another atom of the same
element.
Q: Ionic bond
Answer
***formed by the sharing of electrons - electronegativity diff: < 0.4 (zero difference)
***the complete transfer of one or more valence electrons from one atom to another - electronegativity diff > 1.8 (large)
Q: (Pure) Covalent bonds
Answer
Q: Diatomic element
Answer
When an atom is more stable when bonded to another atom
Q: Pure covalent bond
Answer
***A bond that forms between atoms of identical electronegativity values. (aka shared
electrons) - electronegativity diff < 0.4 (zero)
Q: Polar covalent bond
Answer
***Bond that occurs when atoms are shared unequally. - electronegativity diff: Between 0.4 and 1.8
Unsaturated compound
Answer
Molecules that posses one or more double or triple bonds (or a ring) as part of their
structure.
Isomer
Answer
Molecules with the same molecular formula but a different structure, and therefore a
different shape. - constitutional or structural isomers
Formal charge formula
Answer
FC = group # of element - (dots + dashes)
- dots = non-binding electrons (lone pair or single unpaired electrons) - dashes = bonding electrons
Resonance structure
Answer
Two or more structural formula of a molecule with identical arrangements of atoms BUT
different arrangements of electrons
Major contributor
Answer
Ideal arrangement/structure
Minor contributor
Answer
Less ideal arrangement/structure
Non-contributor
Answer - associated with P orbitals only - Pi orbital
Arrangement/structure does not match or correlate with correct atoms/electrons in an
element.
End-on overlap molecules
Answer
The binding/combination of either S or P orbitals, or both
Sideways orbital overlap
Answer
Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
A tool for determining the shape around atoms in molecules based on analysis of the
patterns of electrons around them. - electrons repel (want to be far apart from each other)
Molecular geometry - wedge bond: project out of plane of paper (towards us) - dash bond: project behind plane of paper (away from us) - line bond: rep atoms/groups that remain in plane of paper
Cation
Becomes positively charged when it loses an electron
Anion
Becomes negatively charged when it receives an electron
The properties & reactivity of an organic molecule are controlled by its
composition & shape
What is organic chemistry?
Branch of chemistry that studies the structure, properties, composition, reaction and
synthesis of organic compounds which contain carbon atoms.
Catenation
Ability of ab element to form bonds with itself, resulting in formation of chains, rings or
complex structures.
Allows for vats diversity of organic compounds in terms of reactivity and properties
Why do atoms form bonds to other atoms?
Energetic stability
To say an atom is energetically stable means that the overall energy of the atom is
lower when in the bonded state than in a non bonded state
T/F
Lower energy typically means greater stability? Why
True
b/c the electron configuration of the atom - atomic valence
Valence
# of bonds an atom will form to fill its valve (outermost) shell.
The atom achieves stability from a full valence shell, as there is no desire to make bonds
Knowing the valence of an atom is important because it indicates ...
How many bonds a given atom will typically form when it combines with other elements to
make a molecule
What do you look at to figure out how many bonds an element will form
LDD
Comes from group number
Unpaired electrons
# of bonds the atom will form
# of pairs of electrons
LONE pairs or nonbonding , these do not participate in bonding
Ionic bonds
formed by the complete transfer of 1 or more valence electron from 1 atom to another
Cation
The atom that loses an electron becomes positively charged
Anion
The atom that gains an electron, becomes negatively charged
Ion
Chemical species that possesses a non-zero electrical charge.
An ionic bond is the attractive force bt oppositely charged ions - an electrostatic attraction
(opposites attract)
How does electronegativity (X) increase
increases moving towards the right and going up the PTOTE
Covalent Bonds
share electrons bt elements with little or no difference in their electronegativity - Heat is released when covalent bonds are formed
Diatomic Elements
a molecule composed of only 2 atoms of the same element. In their natural state, these
elements exist as diatomic molecules rather than individual atoms b/c they are more stable
in this paired form
Key parameters of a covalent bond
Bond strength
bond length
Bond strength
determined by how much heat is released when covalent bond forms (atoms lose energy in
form of heat), gain stability
Chemical term used to describe the energy/stength of a covalent bond is known as
bond enthalpy
Bond length
distance that described the perfect balance bt attraction and repulsion
the atoms vibrate around each other at some equilibrium point, neither flying apart or
fusing together
What determines the number of bonds an atom can form
The number of unpaired electrons
Do lone pairs bond
No
Cation
Loses electron and becomes positive
Ionic bond
The transfer of a valence electron to another atom
Anion
Gains electron and becomes negative
Covalent bond
Sharing of electrons
Pure covalent bond
Identity of atoms is the same
Polar covalent bond
Unequal sharing of electrons
EN difference of 0
Pure covalent
EN difference of 0-0.5
Covalent
EN difference of 0.5-2.0
Polar covalent
EN difference above 2.0
Ionic
Bond order
The number of bonds between atoms: 1 for a single bond, 2 for a double bond, and 3 for a
triple bond
Unsaturation
Lack of hydrogen due to the catenation of carbon
Constitutional isomers
Same molecular formula, but different connectivity
Heteroatoms
Atoms other than C and H
Condensed formula
CH3CH2CH2CH3
Super-condensed formula
CH3(CH2)CH3
Formal charge
Atoms that do not meet the LDD bonding pattern and possess non-zero charge
Calculate formal charge
Group number - (Dots + Dashes)
Overall charge
Sum of formal charges
Hybrid resonance
The average of all resonance structures
What gets changed in resonance
Lone pairs -> Multiple bonds OR Multiple bonds -> Lone pairs
Never single bonds
Major contributors to resonance
Completes the valence
Orbital
Space around nucleus with high probability of finding an electron
Node
Center of orbital, unlikely to find an electron
Which orbitals are in ochem
S&P (spherical and dumbell)
Combination of orbitals theory
A bond between atoms is due to an overlap of their atomic orbitals, resulting in a bonding
molecular orbital
Sigma bond
End on overlap, circular symmetry around bond axis, in hybrid orbitals
Pi bond
Sideways overlap of orbitals
2 bonding 0 lone
Linear, 180
2 bonding 1 lone
angular/bent, 107
3 bonding 0 lone
trigonal planar, 120
3 bonding 1 lone
trigonal pyramidal, 107
2 bonding 2 lone
angular/bent, 105
4 bonding 0 lone
tetrahedral, 109.5
What do you count double bonds as in VSPER
A single pair
Linear
180°
2 BE
0 LP
Angular (2 total electron pairs)
107°
2 BE
1 LP
Trigonal Planar
120°
3 BE
0 BE
Trigonal Pyramidal
107°
3 BE
1 LP
Angular/Bent (4 total electron pairs)
105°
2 BE
2 LP
Tetrahedral
109.5°
4 BE
0 LP
Bond Type for 0 difference in EN?
Purely Covalent
(usually elements to themselves)
Bond Type for > 0 but </= 0.5
Covalent
Bond Type for > 0.5 by </= 2.0
Polar Covalent
Bond Type for >/= 2.0
Ionic
Ionic Bond Melting Point
Very High
Covalent Bond Melting Point
Lower than 300 C
Ionic Physical State
Brittle, Crystalline
Covalent Physical State
Solid, gas, liquid
Covalent Solubility
Range of solubilities
Ionic Solubility
Dissolves readily in polar solvents
Ionic Conduction
Aqueous solutions conduct electricity
Covalent Conduction
Aqueous solutions do NOT conduct electricity
Formal Charge Formula
FC = Group # - (Dots + Dashes)
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